Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of nasopharyngeal cancer.Nasopharyngeal Cancer (PDQ®): TreatmentNasopharyngeal Cancer Treatment
General Information About Nasopharyngeal Cancer
Nasopharyngeal cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the nasopharynx.
The nasopharynx is the upper part of the pharynx (throat) behind the nose. The pharynx is a hollow tube about 5 inches long that starts behind the nose and ends at the top of the trachea (windpipe) and esophagus (the tube that goes from the throat to the stomach). Air and food pass through the pharynx on the way to the trachea or the esophagus. The nostrils lead into the nasopharynx. An opening on each side of the nasopharynx leads into an ear. Nasopharyngeal cancer most commonly starts in the squamous cells that line the oropharynx (the part of the throat behind the mouth).
Ethnic background and exposure to the Epstein-Barr virus can affect the risk of developing nasopharyngeal cancer.
Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Risk factors may include the following:
Chinese or Asian ancestry.
Exposure to the Epstein-Barr virus: The Epstein-Barr virus has been associated with certain cancers, including nasopharyngeal cancer and some lymphomas.
Possible signs of nasopharyngeal cancer include trouble breathing, speaking, or hearing.
These and other symptoms may be caused by nasopharyngeal cancer. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:
A lump in the nose or neck.
A sore throat.
Trouble breathing or speaking.
Nosebleeds.
Trouble hearing.
Pain or ringing in the ear.
Headaches.
Tests that examine the nose and throat are used to detect (find) and diagnose nasopharyngeal cancer.
The following tests and procedures may be used:
Physical exam of the throat: An exam in which the doctor feels for swollen lymph nodes in the neck and looks down the throat with a small, long-handled mirror to check for abnormal areas.
Nasoscopy: A procedure to look inside the nose for abnormal areas. A nasoscope is inserted through the nose. A nasoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to remove tissue samples, which are checked under a microscope for signs of cancer.
Neurological exam: A series of questions and tests to check the brain, spinal cord, and nerve function. The exam checks a person’s mental status, coordination, and ability to walk normally, and how well the muscles, senses, and reflexes work. This may also be called a neuro exam or a neurologic exam.
Head and chest x-rays: An x-ray of the skull and organs and bones inside the chest. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).
CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
PET scan (positron emission tomography scan): A procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body. A small amount of radioactive glucose (sugar) is injected into a vein. The PET scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body. Malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells do. PET scans may be used to find nasopharyngeal cancers that have spread to the bone.
Laboratory tests: Medical procedures that test samples of tissue, blood, urine, or other substances in the body. These tests help to diagnose disease, plan and check treatment, or monitor the disease over time.
Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer.
Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.
The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following:
The stage of the cancer (whether it affects part of the nasopharynx, involves the whole nasopharynx, or has spread to other places in the body).
The type of nasopharyngeal cancer.
The size of the tumor.
The patient’s age and general health.
Sunday, August 31, 2008
Neuroblastoma
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of childhood neuroblastoma.Neuroblastoma (PDQ®): TreatmentNeuroblastoma Treatment
General Information About Neuroblastoma
Neuroblastoma is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in nerve tissue of the adrenal gland, neck, chest, or spinal cord.
Neuroblastoma often begins in the nerve tissue of the adrenal glands. There are two adrenal glands, one on top of each kidney in the back of the upper abdomen. The adrenal glands produce important hormones that help control heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, and the way the body reacts to stress. Neuroblastoma may also begin in the chest, in nerve tissue near the spine in the neck, or in the spinal cord.
Neuroblastoma most often begins during early childhood, usually in children younger than 5 years. It sometimes forms before birth but is usually found later, when the tumor begins to grow and cause symptoms. In rare cases, neuroblastoma may be found before birth by fetal ultrasound.
By the time neuroblastoma is diagnosed, the cancer has usually metastasized (spread), most often to the lymph nodes, bones, bone marrow, liver, and skin.
(See the PDQ summary on Screening for Neuroblastoma for more information.)
Possible signs of neuroblastoma include bone pain and a lump in the abdomen, neck, or chest.
The most common symptoms of neuroblastoma are caused by the tumor pressing on nearby tissues as it grows or by cancer spreading to the bone. These and other symptoms may be caused by neuroblastoma. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:
Lump in the abdomen, neck, or chest.
Bulging eyes.
Dark circles around the eyes ("black eyes").
Bone pain.
Swollen stomach and trouble breathing in infants.
Painless, bluish lumps under the skin in infants.
Weakness or paralysis (loss of ability to move a body part).
Less common signs of neuroblastoma include the following:
Fever.
Shortness of breath.
Feeling tired.
Easy bruising or bleeding.
Petechiae (flat, pinpoint spots under the skin caused by bleeding).
High blood pressure.
Severe watery diarrhea.
Jerky muscle movements.
Uncontrolled eye movement.
Swelling of the legs, ankles, feet, or scrotum.
Tests that examine many different body tissues and fluids are used to detect (find) and diagnose neuroblastoma.
The following tests and procedures may be used:
Physical exam and history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
Twenty-four-hour urine test: A test in which urine is collected for 24 hours to measure the amounts of certain substances. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease in the organ or tissue that makes it. A higher than normal amount of the substances homovanillic acid (HMA) and vanillyl mandelic acid (VMA) may be a sign of neuroblastoma.
Blood chemistry studies: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease in the organ or tissue that makes it. A higher than normal amount of the hormones dopamine and norepinephrine may be a sign of neuroblastoma.
Cytogenetic analysis: A test in which cells in a sample of blood or bone marrow are viewed under a microscope to look for certain changes in the chromosomes.
Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy: The removal of a small piece of bone, bone marrow, and blood by inserting a needle into the hipbone or breastbone. A pathologist views both the bone and the bone marrow samples under a microscope to look for signs of cancer.
Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer.
X-ray: An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body.
CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
Neurological exam: A series of questions and tests to check the brain, spinal cord, and nerve function. The exam checks a person’s mental status, coordination, and ability to walk normally, and how well the muscles, senses, and reflexes work. This may also be called a neuro exam or a neurologic exam.
Ultrasound exam: A procedure in which high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) are bounced off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram.
Immunohistochemistry study: A procedure in which dyes or enzymes are added to a blood or bone marrow sample to test for certain antigens (proteins that stimulate the body's immune response).
General Information About Neuroblastoma
Neuroblastoma is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in nerve tissue of the adrenal gland, neck, chest, or spinal cord.
Neuroblastoma often begins in the nerve tissue of the adrenal glands. There are two adrenal glands, one on top of each kidney in the back of the upper abdomen. The adrenal glands produce important hormones that help control heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, and the way the body reacts to stress. Neuroblastoma may also begin in the chest, in nerve tissue near the spine in the neck, or in the spinal cord.
Neuroblastoma most often begins during early childhood, usually in children younger than 5 years. It sometimes forms before birth but is usually found later, when the tumor begins to grow and cause symptoms. In rare cases, neuroblastoma may be found before birth by fetal ultrasound.
By the time neuroblastoma is diagnosed, the cancer has usually metastasized (spread), most often to the lymph nodes, bones, bone marrow, liver, and skin.
(See the PDQ summary on Screening for Neuroblastoma for more information.)
Possible signs of neuroblastoma include bone pain and a lump in the abdomen, neck, or chest.
The most common symptoms of neuroblastoma are caused by the tumor pressing on nearby tissues as it grows or by cancer spreading to the bone. These and other symptoms may be caused by neuroblastoma. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:
Lump in the abdomen, neck, or chest.
Bulging eyes.
Dark circles around the eyes ("black eyes").
Bone pain.
Swollen stomach and trouble breathing in infants.
Painless, bluish lumps under the skin in infants.
Weakness or paralysis (loss of ability to move a body part).
Less common signs of neuroblastoma include the following:
Fever.
Shortness of breath.
Feeling tired.
Easy bruising or bleeding.
Petechiae (flat, pinpoint spots under the skin caused by bleeding).
High blood pressure.
Severe watery diarrhea.
Jerky muscle movements.
Uncontrolled eye movement.
Swelling of the legs, ankles, feet, or scrotum.
Tests that examine many different body tissues and fluids are used to detect (find) and diagnose neuroblastoma.
The following tests and procedures may be used:
Physical exam and history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
Twenty-four-hour urine test: A test in which urine is collected for 24 hours to measure the amounts of certain substances. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease in the organ or tissue that makes it. A higher than normal amount of the substances homovanillic acid (HMA) and vanillyl mandelic acid (VMA) may be a sign of neuroblastoma.
Blood chemistry studies: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease in the organ or tissue that makes it. A higher than normal amount of the hormones dopamine and norepinephrine may be a sign of neuroblastoma.
Cytogenetic analysis: A test in which cells in a sample of blood or bone marrow are viewed under a microscope to look for certain changes in the chromosomes.
Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy: The removal of a small piece of bone, bone marrow, and blood by inserting a needle into the hipbone or breastbone. A pathologist views both the bone and the bone marrow samples under a microscope to look for signs of cancer.
Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer.
X-ray: An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body.
CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
Neurological exam: A series of questions and tests to check the brain, spinal cord, and nerve function. The exam checks a person’s mental status, coordination, and ability to walk normally, and how well the muscles, senses, and reflexes work. This may also be called a neuro exam or a neurologic exam.
Ultrasound exam: A procedure in which high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) are bounced off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram.
Immunohistochemistry study: A procedure in which dyes or enzymes are added to a blood or bone marrow sample to test for certain antigens (proteins that stimulate the body's immune response).
Oral Cancer
What is Oral Cancer?
A cancer of the oral cavity is a malignant tumor arising from the structures in or near the mouth. Most oral cancers are squamous cell carcinoma -- that is, they begin most typically in the cells that make up the mucous membrane lining the mouth. Rarely, other oral cancers arise from the surrounding structures, such as the jawbone and the hard palate (roof of the mouth). These may be adenocarcinomas (tumors arising from tiny mucous glands in the roof of the mouth or the cheeks) or osteosarcomas (tumors arising from the jawbone).
Cancer of the oral cavity represents 6 percent of all cancers diagnosed each year in the United States. The incidence is expected to rise as the population ages. Oral cancer accounts for 30 percent of all cancers in the head and neck. The disease affects males more often than females, by a ratio of 2:1. However, the number of females affected has increased over the past three decades, presumably because of increased use of tobacco by women.
A cancer of the oral cavity is a malignant tumor arising from the structures in or near the mouth. Most oral cancers are squamous cell carcinoma -- that is, they begin most typically in the cells that make up the mucous membrane lining the mouth. Rarely, other oral cancers arise from the surrounding structures, such as the jawbone and the hard palate (roof of the mouth). These may be adenocarcinomas (tumors arising from tiny mucous glands in the roof of the mouth or the cheeks) or osteosarcomas (tumors arising from the jawbone).
Cancer of the oral cavity represents 6 percent of all cancers diagnosed each year in the United States. The incidence is expected to rise as the population ages. Oral cancer accounts for 30 percent of all cancers in the head and neck. The disease affects males more often than females, by a ratio of 2:1. However, the number of females affected has increased over the past three decades, presumably because of increased use of tobacco by women.
Oropharyngeal Cancer
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of oropharyngeal cancer.Oropharyngeal Cancer (PDQ®): TreatmentOropharyngeal Cancer Treatment
General Information About Oropharyngeal Cancer
Oropharyngeal cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the oropharynx.
The oropharynx is the middle part of the pharynx (throat) behind the mouth, and includes the back one-third of the tongue, the soft palate, the side and back walls of the throat, and the tonsils. The pharynx is a hollow tube about 5 inches long that starts behind the nose and ends at the top of the trachea (windpipe) and esophagus (the tube that goes from the throat to the stomach). Air and food pass through the pharynx on the way to the trachea or the esophagus.
Most oropharyngeal cancers are squamous cell carcinomas. Squamous cells are the thin, flat cells that line the inside of the oropharynx.
Use of tobacco products and drinking too much alcohol can increase the risk of developing oropharyngeal cancer.
Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Risk factors include the following:
Smoking and chewing tobacco.
Heavy alcohol use.
A diet low in fruits and vegetables.
Drinking maté, a stimulant drink common in South America.
Chewing betel quid, a stimulant commonly used in parts of Asia.
Being infected with human papillomavirus (HPV).
Possible signs of oropharyngeal cancer include a sore throat and a lump in the neck.
These and other symptoms may be caused by oropharyngeal cancer. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:
A sore throat that does not go away.
A dull pain behind the breastbone.
Cough.
Trouble swallowing.
Weight loss for no known reason.
Ear pain.
A lump in the back of the mouth, throat, or neck.
A change in voice.
Tests that examine the mouth and throat are used to help detect (find), diagnose, and stage oropharyngeal cancer.
The following tests and procedures may be used:
Physical exam and history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as swollen lymph nodes in the neck or anything else that seems unusual. The doctor does a complete exam of the mouth and neck and looks down the throat with a small, long-handled mirror to check for abnormal areas. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).
X-rays: An x-ray of the organs and bones. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making pictures of areas inside the body.
PET scan (positron emission tomography scan): A procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body. A small amount of radionuclide glucose (sugar) is injected into a vein. The PET scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body. Malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells do.
Endoscopy: A procedure to look at organs and tissues inside the body to check for abnormal areas. An endoscope is inserted through the patient’s nose or mouth to look at areas in the throat that cannot be seen during a physical exam of the throat. An endoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to remove tissue or lymph node samples, which are checked under a microscope for signs of disease.
Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer.
Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.
The prognosis (chance of recovery) depends on the following:
The stage and grade of the cancer.
The location of the tumor.
Whether the tumor is associated with HPV infection.
Treatment options depend on the following:
The stage and grade of the cancer.
The location of the tumor.
The patient's general health.
General Information About Oropharyngeal Cancer
Oropharyngeal cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the oropharynx.
The oropharynx is the middle part of the pharynx (throat) behind the mouth, and includes the back one-third of the tongue, the soft palate, the side and back walls of the throat, and the tonsils. The pharynx is a hollow tube about 5 inches long that starts behind the nose and ends at the top of the trachea (windpipe) and esophagus (the tube that goes from the throat to the stomach). Air and food pass through the pharynx on the way to the trachea or the esophagus.
Most oropharyngeal cancers are squamous cell carcinomas. Squamous cells are the thin, flat cells that line the inside of the oropharynx.
Use of tobacco products and drinking too much alcohol can increase the risk of developing oropharyngeal cancer.
Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Risk factors include the following:
Smoking and chewing tobacco.
Heavy alcohol use.
A diet low in fruits and vegetables.
Drinking maté, a stimulant drink common in South America.
Chewing betel quid, a stimulant commonly used in parts of Asia.
Being infected with human papillomavirus (HPV).
Possible signs of oropharyngeal cancer include a sore throat and a lump in the neck.
These and other symptoms may be caused by oropharyngeal cancer. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:
A sore throat that does not go away.
A dull pain behind the breastbone.
Cough.
Trouble swallowing.
Weight loss for no known reason.
Ear pain.
A lump in the back of the mouth, throat, or neck.
A change in voice.
Tests that examine the mouth and throat are used to help detect (find), diagnose, and stage oropharyngeal cancer.
The following tests and procedures may be used:
Physical exam and history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as swollen lymph nodes in the neck or anything else that seems unusual. The doctor does a complete exam of the mouth and neck and looks down the throat with a small, long-handled mirror to check for abnormal areas. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).
X-rays: An x-ray of the organs and bones. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making pictures of areas inside the body.
PET scan (positron emission tomography scan): A procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body. A small amount of radionuclide glucose (sugar) is injected into a vein. The PET scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body. Malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells do.
Endoscopy: A procedure to look at organs and tissues inside the body to check for abnormal areas. An endoscope is inserted through the patient’s nose or mouth to look at areas in the throat that cannot be seen during a physical exam of the throat. An endoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to remove tissue or lymph node samples, which are checked under a microscope for signs of disease.
Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer.
Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.
The prognosis (chance of recovery) depends on the following:
The stage and grade of the cancer.
The location of the tumor.
Whether the tumor is associated with HPV infection.
Treatment options depend on the following:
The stage and grade of the cancer.
The location of the tumor.
The patient's general health.
Osteosarcoma/malignant Fibrous Histiocytoma Of Bone
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of osteosarcoma/malignant fibrous histiocytoma of bone.Osteosarcoma and Malignant Fibrous Histiocytoma of Bone (PDQ®): TreatmentOsteosarcoma and Bone Fibrous Histiocytoma Treatment
Description
What is osteosarcoma?
Osteosarcoma is a disease in which cancer (malignant) cells are found in the bone. It is the most common type of bone cancer. Osteosarcoma most often occurs in adolescents and young adults. In children and adolescents, tumors appear most often in the bones around the knee. The symptoms and chance for recovery in children and adolescents appear to be the same.
Malignant fibrous histiocytoma (MFH) of bone is a rare tumor of the bone. It may occur following radiation treatments. MFH is generally treated the same as osteosarcoma and appears to have a similar response to treatment.
Ewing sarcoma is another kind of bone cancer, but the cancer cells look different under a microscope than osteosarcoma cancer cells. (See the PDQ summary on Ewing Family of Tumors Treatment for more information.)
If a patient has symptoms (such as pain and swelling of a bone or a bone region), a doctor may order x-rays and blood tests. If it is suspected that the problem is osteosarcoma, your doctor may recommend seeing a specialist called an orthopedic oncologist. The orthopedic oncologist may cut out a piece of tissue from the affected area. This is called a biopsy. The tissue will be looked at under a microscope to see if there are any cancer cells. This test may be done in the hospital.
The prognosis (chance of recovery) is affected by certain factors before and after treatment.
The prognosis of untreated osteosarcoma depends on the following:
The location of the tumor.
The size of the tumor.
The stage of the cancer (whether it spread from where it started to other places in the body).
The age of the patient.
The results of blood tests and other tests.
The type of tumor (based on how the cancer cells look under a microscope).
After osteosarcoma is treated, prognosis also depends on the following:
How much of the cancer was killed by chemotherapy; and/or
How much of the tumor was taken out by surgery.
Treatment options depend on the following:
The location of the tumor.
The stage of the cancer.
Whether the cancer has recurred (come back) after treatment.
The patient's age and general health.
Having certain genetic diseases such as Rothmund-Thomson syndrome.
Description
What is osteosarcoma?
Osteosarcoma is a disease in which cancer (malignant) cells are found in the bone. It is the most common type of bone cancer. Osteosarcoma most often occurs in adolescents and young adults. In children and adolescents, tumors appear most often in the bones around the knee. The symptoms and chance for recovery in children and adolescents appear to be the same.
Malignant fibrous histiocytoma (MFH) of bone is a rare tumor of the bone. It may occur following radiation treatments. MFH is generally treated the same as osteosarcoma and appears to have a similar response to treatment.
Ewing sarcoma is another kind of bone cancer, but the cancer cells look different under a microscope than osteosarcoma cancer cells. (See the PDQ summary on Ewing Family of Tumors Treatment for more information.)
If a patient has symptoms (such as pain and swelling of a bone or a bone region), a doctor may order x-rays and blood tests. If it is suspected that the problem is osteosarcoma, your doctor may recommend seeing a specialist called an orthopedic oncologist. The orthopedic oncologist may cut out a piece of tissue from the affected area. This is called a biopsy. The tissue will be looked at under a microscope to see if there are any cancer cells. This test may be done in the hospital.
The prognosis (chance of recovery) is affected by certain factors before and after treatment.
The prognosis of untreated osteosarcoma depends on the following:
The location of the tumor.
The size of the tumor.
The stage of the cancer (whether it spread from where it started to other places in the body).
The age of the patient.
The results of blood tests and other tests.
The type of tumor (based on how the cancer cells look under a microscope).
After osteosarcoma is treated, prognosis also depends on the following:
How much of the cancer was killed by chemotherapy; and/or
How much of the tumor was taken out by surgery.
Treatment options depend on the following:
The location of the tumor.
The stage of the cancer.
Whether the cancer has recurred (come back) after treatment.
The patient's age and general health.
Having certain genetic diseases such as Rothmund-Thomson syndrome.
Ovarian Epithelial Cancer
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of ovarian epithelial cancer.Ovarian Epithelial Cancer (PDQ®): TreatmentOvarian Epithelial Cancer Treatment
General Information About Ovarian Epithelial Cancer
Ovarian epithelial cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissue covering the ovary.
The ovaries are a pair of organs in the female reproductive system. They are located in the pelvis, one on each side of the uterus (the hollow, pear-shaped organ where a fetus grows). Each ovary is about the size and shape of an almond. The ovaries produce eggs and female hormones (chemicals that control the way certain cells or organs function).
Ovarian epithelial cancer is one type of cancer that affects the ovary. (Refer to the PDQ treatment summaries on Ovarian Germ Cell Tumors and Ovarian Low Malignant Potential Tumors for information about other types of ovarian cancer.)
Women who have a family history of ovarian cancer are at an increased risk of developing ovarian cancer.
Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Women who have one first-degree relative (mother, daughter, or sister) with ovarian cancer are at an increased risk of developing ovarian cancer. This risk is higher in women who have one first-degree relative and one second-degree relative (grandmother or aunt) with ovarian cancer. This risk is even higher in women who have two or more first-degree relatives with ovarian cancer.
Some ovarian cancers are caused by inherited gene mutations (changes).
The genes in cells carry the hereditary information that is received from a person’s parents. Hereditary ovarian cancer makes up approximately 5% to 10% of all cases of ovarian cancer. Three hereditary patterns have been identified: ovarian cancer alone, ovarian and breast cancers, and ovarian and colon cancers.
Tests that can detect mutated genes have been developed. These genetic tests are sometimes done for members of families with a high risk of cancer. (Refer to the PDQ summaries on Screening for Ovarian Cancer, Prevention of Ovarian Cancer, and Genetics of Breast and Ovarian Cancer for more information.)
Women with an increased risk of ovarian cancer may consider surgery to prevent it.
Some women who have an increased risk of ovarian cancer may choose to have a prophylactic oophorectomy (the removal of healthy ovaries so that cancer cannot grow in them). In high-risk women, this procedure has been shown to greatly decrease the risk of developing ovarian cancer. See the PDQ summary on Prevention of Ovarian Cancer for more information.
Possible signs of ovarian cancer include pain or swelling in the abdomen.
Early ovarian cancer may not cause any symptoms. When symptoms do appear, ovarian cancer is often advanced. Symptoms of ovarian cancer may include the following:
Pain or swelling in the abdomen.
Pain in the pelvis.
Gastrointestinal problems, such as gas, bloating, or constipation.
These symptoms may be caused by other conditions and not by ovarian cancer. If the symptoms get worse or do not go away on their own, a doctor should be consulted so that any problem can be diagnosed and treated as early as possible. When found in its early stages, ovarian epithelial cancer can often be cured.
Women with any stage of ovarian cancer should think about taking part in a clinical trial. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site.
General Information About Ovarian Epithelial Cancer
Ovarian epithelial cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissue covering the ovary.
The ovaries are a pair of organs in the female reproductive system. They are located in the pelvis, one on each side of the uterus (the hollow, pear-shaped organ where a fetus grows). Each ovary is about the size and shape of an almond. The ovaries produce eggs and female hormones (chemicals that control the way certain cells or organs function).
Ovarian epithelial cancer is one type of cancer that affects the ovary. (Refer to the PDQ treatment summaries on Ovarian Germ Cell Tumors and Ovarian Low Malignant Potential Tumors for information about other types of ovarian cancer.)
Women who have a family history of ovarian cancer are at an increased risk of developing ovarian cancer.
Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Women who have one first-degree relative (mother, daughter, or sister) with ovarian cancer are at an increased risk of developing ovarian cancer. This risk is higher in women who have one first-degree relative and one second-degree relative (grandmother or aunt) with ovarian cancer. This risk is even higher in women who have two or more first-degree relatives with ovarian cancer.
Some ovarian cancers are caused by inherited gene mutations (changes).
The genes in cells carry the hereditary information that is received from a person’s parents. Hereditary ovarian cancer makes up approximately 5% to 10% of all cases of ovarian cancer. Three hereditary patterns have been identified: ovarian cancer alone, ovarian and breast cancers, and ovarian and colon cancers.
Tests that can detect mutated genes have been developed. These genetic tests are sometimes done for members of families with a high risk of cancer. (Refer to the PDQ summaries on Screening for Ovarian Cancer, Prevention of Ovarian Cancer, and Genetics of Breast and Ovarian Cancer for more information.)
Women with an increased risk of ovarian cancer may consider surgery to prevent it.
Some women who have an increased risk of ovarian cancer may choose to have a prophylactic oophorectomy (the removal of healthy ovaries so that cancer cannot grow in them). In high-risk women, this procedure has been shown to greatly decrease the risk of developing ovarian cancer. See the PDQ summary on Prevention of Ovarian Cancer for more information.
Possible signs of ovarian cancer include pain or swelling in the abdomen.
Early ovarian cancer may not cause any symptoms. When symptoms do appear, ovarian cancer is often advanced. Symptoms of ovarian cancer may include the following:
Pain or swelling in the abdomen.
Pain in the pelvis.
Gastrointestinal problems, such as gas, bloating, or constipation.
These symptoms may be caused by other conditions and not by ovarian cancer. If the symptoms get worse or do not go away on their own, a doctor should be consulted so that any problem can be diagnosed and treated as early as possible. When found in its early stages, ovarian epithelial cancer can often be cured.
Women with any stage of ovarian cancer should think about taking part in a clinical trial. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site.
Ovarian Germ Cell Tumor
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of ovarian germ cell tumors.Ovarian Germ Cell Tumors (PDQ®): TreatmentOvarian Germ Cell Tumors Treatment
General Information About Ovarian Germ Cell Tumors
Ovarian germ cell tumor is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the germ (egg) cells of the ovary.
Germ cell tumors begin in the reproductive cells (egg or sperm) of the body. Ovarian germ cell tumors usually occur in teenage girls or young women and most often affect just one ovary.
The ovaries are a pair of organs in the female reproductive system. They are located in the pelvis, one on each side of the uterus (the hollow, pear-shaped organ where a fetus grows). Each ovary is about the size and shape of an almond. The ovaries produce eggs and female hormones (chemicals that control the way certain cells or organs function).
Ovarian germ cell tumor is a general name that is used to describe several different types of cancer. The most common ovarian germ cell tumor is called dysgerminoma. (Refer to the PDQ summaries on Ovarian Epithelial Cancer Treatment and Ovarian Low Malignant Potential Tumors Treatment for information about other types of ovarian cancers.)
Possible signs of ovarian germ cell tumor are swelling of the abdomen or vaginal bleeding after menopause.
Ovarian germ cell tumors can be difficult to diagnose (find) early. Often there are no symptoms in the early stages, but tumors may be found during regular gynecologic examinations (checkups). A woman who has swelling of the abdomen without weight gain in other places should see a doctor. A woman who no longer has menstrual periods (who has gone through menopause) should also see a doctor if she has bleeding from the vagina.
Tests that examine the ovaries, pelvic area, blood, and ovarian tissue are used to detect (find) and diagnose ovarian germ cell tumor.
The following tests and procedures may be used:
Pelvic exam: An exam of the vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries, and rectum. The doctor or nurse inserts one or two lubricated, gloved fingers of one hand into the vagina and the other hand is placed over the lower abdomen to feel the size, shape, and position of the uterus and ovaries. A speculum is also inserted into the vagina and the doctor or nurse looks at the vagina and cervix for signs of disease. A Pap test or Pap smear of the cervix is usually done. The doctor or nurse also inserts a lubricated, gloved finger into the rectum to feel for lumps or abnormal areas.
Laparotomy: A surgical procedure in which an incision (cut) is made in the wall of the abdomen to check the inside of the abdomen for signs of disease. The size of the incision depends on the reason the laparotomy is being done. Sometimes organs are removed or tissue samples are taken for biopsy.
Lymphangiogram: A procedure used to x-ray the lymph system. A dye is injected into the lymph vessels in the feet. The dye travels upward through the lymph nodes and lymph vessels, and x-rays are taken to see if there are any blockages. This test helps find out whether cancer has spread to the lymph nodes.
CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
Blood tests: Tests to measure the levels of alpha fetoprotein (AFP) and human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) in the blood. AFP and HCG are substances that may be signs of ovarian germ cell tumor when found at increased levels.
General Information About Ovarian Germ Cell Tumors
Ovarian germ cell tumor is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the germ (egg) cells of the ovary.
Germ cell tumors begin in the reproductive cells (egg or sperm) of the body. Ovarian germ cell tumors usually occur in teenage girls or young women and most often affect just one ovary.
The ovaries are a pair of organs in the female reproductive system. They are located in the pelvis, one on each side of the uterus (the hollow, pear-shaped organ where a fetus grows). Each ovary is about the size and shape of an almond. The ovaries produce eggs and female hormones (chemicals that control the way certain cells or organs function).
Ovarian germ cell tumor is a general name that is used to describe several different types of cancer. The most common ovarian germ cell tumor is called dysgerminoma. (Refer to the PDQ summaries on Ovarian Epithelial Cancer Treatment and Ovarian Low Malignant Potential Tumors Treatment for information about other types of ovarian cancers.)
Possible signs of ovarian germ cell tumor are swelling of the abdomen or vaginal bleeding after menopause.
Ovarian germ cell tumors can be difficult to diagnose (find) early. Often there are no symptoms in the early stages, but tumors may be found during regular gynecologic examinations (checkups). A woman who has swelling of the abdomen without weight gain in other places should see a doctor. A woman who no longer has menstrual periods (who has gone through menopause) should also see a doctor if she has bleeding from the vagina.
Tests that examine the ovaries, pelvic area, blood, and ovarian tissue are used to detect (find) and diagnose ovarian germ cell tumor.
The following tests and procedures may be used:
Pelvic exam: An exam of the vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries, and rectum. The doctor or nurse inserts one or two lubricated, gloved fingers of one hand into the vagina and the other hand is placed over the lower abdomen to feel the size, shape, and position of the uterus and ovaries. A speculum is also inserted into the vagina and the doctor or nurse looks at the vagina and cervix for signs of disease. A Pap test or Pap smear of the cervix is usually done. The doctor or nurse also inserts a lubricated, gloved finger into the rectum to feel for lumps or abnormal areas.
Laparotomy: A surgical procedure in which an incision (cut) is made in the wall of the abdomen to check the inside of the abdomen for signs of disease. The size of the incision depends on the reason the laparotomy is being done. Sometimes organs are removed or tissue samples are taken for biopsy.
Lymphangiogram: A procedure used to x-ray the lymph system. A dye is injected into the lymph vessels in the feet. The dye travels upward through the lymph nodes and lymph vessels, and x-rays are taken to see if there are any blockages. This test helps find out whether cancer has spread to the lymph nodes.
CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
Blood tests: Tests to measure the levels of alpha fetoprotein (AFP) and human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) in the blood. AFP and HCG are substances that may be signs of ovarian germ cell tumor when found at increased levels.
Borderline Ovarian Surface Epithelial-Stromal Tumor
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of ovarian low-malignant potential tumors.Ovarian Low Malignant Potential Tumors (PDQ®): TreatmentOvarian Low Malignant Potential Tumors Treatment
General Information About Ovarian Low Malignant Potential Tumors
Ovarian low malignant potential tumor is a disease in which precancerous cells (cells that may, or are likely to, become cancer) form in the tissue covering the ovary.
Ovarian low malignant potential tumor is considered precancerous (or premalignant), a condition that may (or is likely to) become cancer. This disease seldom spreads beyond the ovary. When disease is found in one ovary, the other ovary also should be checked carefully for signs of disease.
The ovaries are a pair of organs in the female reproductive system. They are located in the pelvis, one on each side of the uterus (the hollow, pear-shaped organ where a fetus grows). Each ovary is about the size and shape of an almond. The ovaries produce eggs and female hormones (chemicals that control the way certain cells or organs function).
Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.
The prognosis and treatment options depend on the following:
The stage of the cancer (whether it affects part of the ovary, involves the whole ovary, or has spread to other places in the body).
The type of cancer.
The size of the tumor.
The patient’s general health.
In most cases, ovarian low malignant potential tumor can be treated successfully.
These tumors are usually found early. Most women, however, survive even advanced stage ovarian low malignant potential tumors. Patients who do not survive usually die from complications of the disease (such as a small bowel obstruction) or the side effects of treatment, but rarely because the tumor has spread.
General Information About Ovarian Low Malignant Potential Tumors
Ovarian low malignant potential tumor is a disease in which precancerous cells (cells that may, or are likely to, become cancer) form in the tissue covering the ovary.
Ovarian low malignant potential tumor is considered precancerous (or premalignant), a condition that may (or is likely to) become cancer. This disease seldom spreads beyond the ovary. When disease is found in one ovary, the other ovary also should be checked carefully for signs of disease.
The ovaries are a pair of organs in the female reproductive system. They are located in the pelvis, one on each side of the uterus (the hollow, pear-shaped organ where a fetus grows). Each ovary is about the size and shape of an almond. The ovaries produce eggs and female hormones (chemicals that control the way certain cells or organs function).
Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.
The prognosis and treatment options depend on the following:
The stage of the cancer (whether it affects part of the ovary, involves the whole ovary, or has spread to other places in the body).
The type of cancer.
The size of the tumor.
The patient’s general health.
In most cases, ovarian low malignant potential tumor can be treated successfully.
These tumors are usually found early. Most women, however, survive even advanced stage ovarian low malignant potential tumors. Patients who do not survive usually die from complications of the disease (such as a small bowel obstruction) or the side effects of treatment, but rarely because the tumor has spread.
Islet Cell Carcinoma
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of islet cell carcinoma (endocrine pancreas).Islet Cell Carcinoma (Endocrine Pancreas) (PDQ®): TreatmentIslet Cell Carcinoma (Pancreatic) Treatment
Description
What are islet cell tumors?
An islet cell tumor is a mass of abnormal cells that forms in the endocrine (hormone-producing) tissues of the pancreas. Islet cell tumors may be benign (noncancer) or malignant (cancerous). Islet cell cancer is rare.
The pancreas is about 6 inches long and is shaped like a thin pear, wider at one end and narrower at the other. The pancreas lies behind the stomach, inside a loop formed by part of the small intestine. The broader right end of the pancreas is called the head, the middle section is called the body, and the narrow left end is the tail.
The pancreas has two basic jobs in the body. It produces digestive juices that help break down (digest) food, and hormones (such as insulin) that regulate how the body stores and uses food. The area of the pancreas that produces digestive juices is called the exocrine pancreas. About 95% of pancreatic cancers begin in the exocrine pancreas. The hormone-producing area of the pancreas has special cells called islet cells and is called the endocrine pancreas. Only about 5% of pancreatic cancers start here. This summary has information on cancer of the endocrine pancreas (islet cell cancer). (See the PDQ summary on Pancreatic Cancer Treatment for more information on cancer of the exocrine pancreas.)
The islet cells in the pancreas make many hormones, including insulin, which help the body store and use sugars. When islet cells in the pancreas become cancerous, they may make too many hormones. Islet cell cancers that make too many hormones are called functioning tumors. Other islet cell cancers may not make extra hormones and are called nonfunctioning tumors. Tumors that do not spread to other parts of the body can also be found in the islet cells. These are called benign tumors and are not cancer. A doctor will need to determine whether the tumor is cancer or a benign tumor.
A doctor should be seen if there is pain in the abdomen, diarrhea, stomach pain, a tired feeling all the time, fainting, or weight gain without eating too much.
If there are symptoms, the doctor will order blood and urine tests to see whether the amounts of hormones in the body are normal. Other tests, including x-rays and special scans, may also be done.
The chance of recovery (prognosis) depends on the type of islet cell cancer the patient has, how far the cancer has spread, and the patient’s overall health.
Stage Explanation
Stages of islet cell cancer
Once islet cell cancer is found, more tests will be done to find out if cancer cells have spread to other parts of the body. This is called staging. The staging system for islet cell cancer is still being developed. These tumors are most often divided into one of three groups:
islet cell cancers occurring in one site within the pancreas,
islet cell cancers occurring in several sites within the pancreas, or
islet cell cancers that have spread to lymph nodes near the pancreas or to distant sites.
A doctor also needs to know the type of islet cell tumor to plan treatment. The following types of islet cell tumors are found:
Description
What are islet cell tumors?
An islet cell tumor is a mass of abnormal cells that forms in the endocrine (hormone-producing) tissues of the pancreas. Islet cell tumors may be benign (noncancer) or malignant (cancerous). Islet cell cancer is rare.
The pancreas is about 6 inches long and is shaped like a thin pear, wider at one end and narrower at the other. The pancreas lies behind the stomach, inside a loop formed by part of the small intestine. The broader right end of the pancreas is called the head, the middle section is called the body, and the narrow left end is the tail.
The pancreas has two basic jobs in the body. It produces digestive juices that help break down (digest) food, and hormones (such as insulin) that regulate how the body stores and uses food. The area of the pancreas that produces digestive juices is called the exocrine pancreas. About 95% of pancreatic cancers begin in the exocrine pancreas. The hormone-producing area of the pancreas has special cells called islet cells and is called the endocrine pancreas. Only about 5% of pancreatic cancers start here. This summary has information on cancer of the endocrine pancreas (islet cell cancer). (See the PDQ summary on Pancreatic Cancer Treatment for more information on cancer of the exocrine pancreas.)
The islet cells in the pancreas make many hormones, including insulin, which help the body store and use sugars. When islet cells in the pancreas become cancerous, they may make too many hormones. Islet cell cancers that make too many hormones are called functioning tumors. Other islet cell cancers may not make extra hormones and are called nonfunctioning tumors. Tumors that do not spread to other parts of the body can also be found in the islet cells. These are called benign tumors and are not cancer. A doctor will need to determine whether the tumor is cancer or a benign tumor.
A doctor should be seen if there is pain in the abdomen, diarrhea, stomach pain, a tired feeling all the time, fainting, or weight gain without eating too much.
If there are symptoms, the doctor will order blood and urine tests to see whether the amounts of hormones in the body are normal. Other tests, including x-rays and special scans, may also be done.
The chance of recovery (prognosis) depends on the type of islet cell cancer the patient has, how far the cancer has spread, and the patient’s overall health.
Stage Explanation
Stages of islet cell cancer
Once islet cell cancer is found, more tests will be done to find out if cancer cells have spread to other parts of the body. This is called staging. The staging system for islet cell cancer is still being developed. These tumors are most often divided into one of three groups:
islet cell cancers occurring in one site within the pancreas,
islet cell cancers occurring in several sites within the pancreas, or
islet cell cancers that have spread to lymph nodes near the pancreas or to distant sites.
A doctor also needs to know the type of islet cell tumor to plan treatment. The following types of islet cell tumors are found:
Paranasal Sinus And Nasal Cavity Cancer
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer.Paranasal Sinus and Nasal Cavity Cancer (PDQ®): TreatmentParanasal Sinus and Nasal Cavity Cancer Treatment
General Information About Paranasal Sinus and Nasal Cavity Cancer
Paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the paranasal sinuses and nasal cavity.
Paranasal sinuses
"Paranasal" means near the nose. The paranasal sinuses are hollow, air-filled spaces in the bones around the nose. The sinuses are lined with cells that make mucus, which keeps the inside of the nose from drying out during breathing.
There are several paranasal sinuses named after the bones that surround them:
The frontal sinuses are in the lower forehead above the nose.
The maxillary sinuses are in the cheekbones on either side of the nose.
The ethmoid sinuses are beside the upper nose, between the eyes.
The sphenoid sinuses are behind the nose, in the center of the skull.
Nasal cavity
The nose opens into the nasal cavity, which is divided into two nasal passages. Air moves through these passages during breathing. The nasal cavity lies above the bone that forms the roof of the mouth and curves down at the back to join the throat. The area just inside the nostrils is called the nasal vestibule. A small area of special cells in the roof of each nasal passage sends signals to the brain to give the sense of smell.
Together the paranasal sinuses and the nasal cavity filter and warm the air, and make it moist before it goes into the lungs. The movement of air through the sinuses and other parts of the respiratory system help make sounds for talking.
Different types of cells in the paranasal sinus and nasal cavity may become malignant.
The most common type of paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer is squamous cell carcinoma. This type of cancer forms in the squamous cells (thin, flat cells) lining the inside of the paranasal sinuses and the nasal cavity.
Other types of paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer include the following:
Melanoma: Cancer that starts in cells called melanocytes, the cells that give skin its natural color.
Sarcoma: Cancer that starts in muscle or connective tissue.
Inverting papilloma: Benign tumors that form inside the nose. A small number of these change into cancer.
Midline granulomas: Cancer of tissues in the middle part of the face.
Being exposed to certain chemicals or dust in the workplace can increase the risk of developing paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer.
Anything that increases your chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer; not having risk factors doesn’t mean that you will not get cancer. People who think they may be at risk should discuss this with their doctor. Risk factors for paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer include the following:
Being exposed to certain workplace chemicals or dust, such as those found in the following jobs:
Furniture-making.
Sawmill work.
Woodworking (carpentry).
Shoemaking.
Metal-plating.
Flour mill or bakery work.
Being male and older than 40 years.
Smoking.
General Information About Paranasal Sinus and Nasal Cavity Cancer
Paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the paranasal sinuses and nasal cavity.
Paranasal sinuses
"Paranasal" means near the nose. The paranasal sinuses are hollow, air-filled spaces in the bones around the nose. The sinuses are lined with cells that make mucus, which keeps the inside of the nose from drying out during breathing.
There are several paranasal sinuses named after the bones that surround them:
The frontal sinuses are in the lower forehead above the nose.
The maxillary sinuses are in the cheekbones on either side of the nose.
The ethmoid sinuses are beside the upper nose, between the eyes.
The sphenoid sinuses are behind the nose, in the center of the skull.
Nasal cavity
The nose opens into the nasal cavity, which is divided into two nasal passages. Air moves through these passages during breathing. The nasal cavity lies above the bone that forms the roof of the mouth and curves down at the back to join the throat. The area just inside the nostrils is called the nasal vestibule. A small area of special cells in the roof of each nasal passage sends signals to the brain to give the sense of smell.
Together the paranasal sinuses and the nasal cavity filter and warm the air, and make it moist before it goes into the lungs. The movement of air through the sinuses and other parts of the respiratory system help make sounds for talking.
Different types of cells in the paranasal sinus and nasal cavity may become malignant.
The most common type of paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer is squamous cell carcinoma. This type of cancer forms in the squamous cells (thin, flat cells) lining the inside of the paranasal sinuses and the nasal cavity.
Other types of paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer include the following:
Melanoma: Cancer that starts in cells called melanocytes, the cells that give skin its natural color.
Sarcoma: Cancer that starts in muscle or connective tissue.
Inverting papilloma: Benign tumors that form inside the nose. A small number of these change into cancer.
Midline granulomas: Cancer of tissues in the middle part of the face.
Being exposed to certain chemicals or dust in the workplace can increase the risk of developing paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer.
Anything that increases your chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer; not having risk factors doesn’t mean that you will not get cancer. People who think they may be at risk should discuss this with their doctor. Risk factors for paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer include the following:
Being exposed to certain workplace chemicals or dust, such as those found in the following jobs:
Furniture-making.
Sawmill work.
Woodworking (carpentry).
Shoemaking.
Metal-plating.
Flour mill or bakery work.
Being male and older than 40 years.
Smoking.
Parathyroid Cancer
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of parathyroid cancer.Parathyroid Cancer (PDQ®): TreatmentParathyroid Cancer Treatment
General Information About Parathyroid Cancer
Parathyroid cancer is a rare disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of a parathyroid gland.
The parathyroid glands are four pea-sized organs found in the neck near the thyroid gland. The parathyroid glands make parathyroid hormone (PTH or parathormone). PTH helps the body use and store calcium to keep the calcium in the blood at normal levels.
A parathyroid gland may become overactive and make too much PTH, a condition called hyperparathyroidism. Hyperparathyroidism can occur when a benign tumor (noncancer), called an adenoma, forms on one of the parathyroid glands, and causes it to grow and become overactive. Sometimes hyperparathyroidism can be caused by parathyroid cancer, but this is very rare.
The extra PTH causes:
The calcium stored in the bones to move into the blood.
The intestines to absorb more calcium from the food we eat.
This condition is called hypercalcemia (too much calcium in the blood).
The hypercalcemia caused by hyperparathyroidism is more serious and life-threatening than parathyroid cancer itself and treating hypercalcemia is as important as treating the cancer.
Having certain inherited disorders can increase the risk of developing parathyroid cancer.
Anything that increases the chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Risk factors for parathyroid cancer include the following rare disorders that are inherited (passed down from parent to child):
Familial isolated hyperparathyroidism (FIHP).
Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1) syndrome.
Treatment with radiation therapy may increase the risk of developing a parathyroid adenoma.
Possible signs of parathyroid cancer include weakness, feeling tired, and a lump in the neck.
Most parathyroid cancer symptoms are caused by the hypercalcemia that develops. Symptoms of hypercalcemia include the following:
Weakness.
Feeling very tired.
Nausea and vomiting.
Loss of appetite.
Weight loss for no known reason.
Being much more thirsty than usual.
Urinating much more than usual.
Constipation.
Trouble thinking clearly.
Other symptoms of parathyroid cancer include the following:
Pain in the abdomen, side, or back that doesn't go away.
Pain in the bones.
A broken bone.
A lump in the neck.
Change in voice such as hoarseness.
Trouble swallowing.
Other conditions may cause the same symptoms as parathyroid cancer. A doctor should be consulted if any of these problems occur.
General Information About Parathyroid Cancer
Parathyroid cancer is a rare disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of a parathyroid gland.
The parathyroid glands are four pea-sized organs found in the neck near the thyroid gland. The parathyroid glands make parathyroid hormone (PTH or parathormone). PTH helps the body use and store calcium to keep the calcium in the blood at normal levels.
A parathyroid gland may become overactive and make too much PTH, a condition called hyperparathyroidism. Hyperparathyroidism can occur when a benign tumor (noncancer), called an adenoma, forms on one of the parathyroid glands, and causes it to grow and become overactive. Sometimes hyperparathyroidism can be caused by parathyroid cancer, but this is very rare.
The extra PTH causes:
The calcium stored in the bones to move into the blood.
The intestines to absorb more calcium from the food we eat.
This condition is called hypercalcemia (too much calcium in the blood).
The hypercalcemia caused by hyperparathyroidism is more serious and life-threatening than parathyroid cancer itself and treating hypercalcemia is as important as treating the cancer.
Having certain inherited disorders can increase the risk of developing parathyroid cancer.
Anything that increases the chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Risk factors for parathyroid cancer include the following rare disorders that are inherited (passed down from parent to child):
Familial isolated hyperparathyroidism (FIHP).
Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1) syndrome.
Treatment with radiation therapy may increase the risk of developing a parathyroid adenoma.
Possible signs of parathyroid cancer include weakness, feeling tired, and a lump in the neck.
Most parathyroid cancer symptoms are caused by the hypercalcemia that develops. Symptoms of hypercalcemia include the following:
Weakness.
Feeling very tired.
Nausea and vomiting.
Loss of appetite.
Weight loss for no known reason.
Being much more thirsty than usual.
Urinating much more than usual.
Constipation.
Trouble thinking clearly.
Other symptoms of parathyroid cancer include the following:
Pain in the abdomen, side, or back that doesn't go away.
Pain in the bones.
A broken bone.
A lump in the neck.
Change in voice such as hoarseness.
Trouble swallowing.
Other conditions may cause the same symptoms as parathyroid cancer. A doctor should be consulted if any of these problems occur.
Penile Cancer
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of penile cancer.Penile Cancer (PDQ®): TreatmentPenile Cancer Treatment
General Information About Penile Cancer
Penile cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the penis.
The penis is a rod-shaped male reproductive organ that passes sperm and urine from the body. It contains two types of erectile tissue (spongy tissue with blood vessels that fill with blood to make an erection):
Corpora cavernosa: The two columns of erectile tissue that form most of the penis.
Corpus spongiosum: The single column of erectile tissue that forms a small portion of the penis. The corpus spongiosum surrounds the urethra (the tube through which urine and sperm pass from the body).
The erectile tissue is wrapped in connective tissue and covered with skin. The glans (head of the penis) is covered with loose skin called the foreskin.
Human papillomavirus infection may increase the risk of developing penile cancer.
Anything that increases your chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor.
Circumcision may help prevent infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV). A circumcision is an operation in which the doctor removes part or all of the foreskin from the penis. Many boys are circumcised shortly after birth. Men who were not circumcised at birth may have a higher risk of developing penile cancer.
Other risk factors for penile cancer include the following:
Being age 60 or older.
Having phimosis (a condition in which the foreskin of the penis cannot be pulled back over the glans).
Having poor personal hygiene.
Having many sexual partners.
Using tobacco products.
Possible signs of penile cancer include sores, discharge, and bleeding.
These and other symptoms may be caused by penile cancer. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:
Redness, irritation, or a sore on the penis.
A lump on the penis.
Tests that examine the penis are used to detect (find) and diagnose penile cancer.
The following tests and procedures may be used:
Physical exam and history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking the penis for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer.
Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.
The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following:
The stage of the cancer.
The location and size of the tumor.
Whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred (come back).
Stages of Penile Cancer
After penile cancer has been diagnosed, tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the penis or to other parts of the body.
The process used to find out if cancer has spread within the penis or to other parts of the body is called staging. The information gathered from the staging process determines the stage of the disease. It is important to know the stage in order to plan treatment. The following tests and procedures may be used in the staging process:
CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. A substance called gadolinium is injected into a vein. The gadolinium collects around the cancer cells so they show up brighter in the picture. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).
Ultrasound exam: A procedure in which high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) are bounced off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram.
General Information About Penile Cancer
Penile cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the penis.
The penis is a rod-shaped male reproductive organ that passes sperm and urine from the body. It contains two types of erectile tissue (spongy tissue with blood vessels that fill with blood to make an erection):
Corpora cavernosa: The two columns of erectile tissue that form most of the penis.
Corpus spongiosum: The single column of erectile tissue that forms a small portion of the penis. The corpus spongiosum surrounds the urethra (the tube through which urine and sperm pass from the body).
The erectile tissue is wrapped in connective tissue and covered with skin. The glans (head of the penis) is covered with loose skin called the foreskin.
Human papillomavirus infection may increase the risk of developing penile cancer.
Anything that increases your chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor.
Circumcision may help prevent infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV). A circumcision is an operation in which the doctor removes part or all of the foreskin from the penis. Many boys are circumcised shortly after birth. Men who were not circumcised at birth may have a higher risk of developing penile cancer.
Other risk factors for penile cancer include the following:
Being age 60 or older.
Having phimosis (a condition in which the foreskin of the penis cannot be pulled back over the glans).
Having poor personal hygiene.
Having many sexual partners.
Using tobacco products.
Possible signs of penile cancer include sores, discharge, and bleeding.
These and other symptoms may be caused by penile cancer. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:
Redness, irritation, or a sore on the penis.
A lump on the penis.
Tests that examine the penis are used to detect (find) and diagnose penile cancer.
The following tests and procedures may be used:
Physical exam and history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking the penis for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer.
Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.
The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following:
The stage of the cancer.
The location and size of the tumor.
Whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred (come back).
Stages of Penile Cancer
After penile cancer has been diagnosed, tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the penis or to other parts of the body.
The process used to find out if cancer has spread within the penis or to other parts of the body is called staging. The information gathered from the staging process determines the stage of the disease. It is important to know the stage in order to plan treatment. The following tests and procedures may be used in the staging process:
CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. A substance called gadolinium is injected into a vein. The gadolinium collects around the cancer cells so they show up brighter in the picture. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).
Ultrasound exam: A procedure in which high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) are bounced off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram.
Pheochromocytoma
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of pheochromocytoma.Pheochromocytoma (PDQ®): TreatmentPheochromocytoma Treatment
Description
What is pheochromocytoma?
Pheochromocytoma is a rare disease in which tumors form in chromaffin cells of the body. Most pheochromocytomas start inside the adrenal gland (the adrenal medulla) where most chromaffin cells are located. There are two adrenal glands, one above each kidney in the back of the upper abdomen. Cells in the adrenal glands make important hormones that help the body work properly. Usually pheochromocytoma affects only one adrenal gland. Pheochromocytoma may also start in other parts of the body, such as the area around the heart or bladder.
Most tumors that start in the chromaffin cells do not spread to other parts of the body and are not cancer. These are called benign tumors. If a tumor is found, the doctor will need to determine whether it is cancer or benign.
Pheochromocytomas often cause the adrenal glands to make too many hormones called catecholamines. The extra catecholamines cause high blood pressure (hypertension), which can cause headaches, sweating, pounding of the heart, pain in the chest, and a feeling of anxiety. High blood pressure that goes on for a long time without treatment can lead to heart disease, stroke, and other major health problems.
If there are symptoms, a doctor may order blood and urine tests to see if there are extra hormones in the body. A patient may also have a special nuclear medicine scan. A CT scan, an x-ray that uses a computer to make a picture of the inside of a part of the body or an MRI scan, which uses magnetic waves to make a picture of the abdomen, may also be done.
Pheochromocytoma is sometimes part of a condition called multiple endocrine neoplasia syndrome (MEN). People with MEN often have other cancers (such as thyroid cancer) and other hormonal problems.
The chance of recovery (prognosis) depends on how far the cancer has spread, and the patient’s age and general health.
Stage Explanation
Stages of pheochromocytoma
Once pheochromocytoma is found, more tests will be done to see if the tumor has spread. This is called staging. A doctor needs to know the stage of the disease to plan treatment. The following stages are used for pheochromocytoma:
Localized benign pheochromocytoma
Tumor is found in only one area and has not spread to other tissues. Most pheochromocytomas do not spread to other parts of the body and are not cancer.
Regional pheochromocytoma
Cancer has spread to lymph nodes in the area or to other tissues around the original cancer. (Lymph nodes are small bean-shaped structures that are found throughout the body. They produce and store infection-fighting cells.)
Metastatic pheochromocytoma
The cancer has spread to other parts of the body.
Recurrent pheochromocytoma
Recurrent disease means that the cancer has come back (recurred) after it has been treated. It may come back in the area where it started or in another part of the body.
Treatment Option Overview
How pheochromocytoma is treated
There are treatments for all patients with pheochromocytoma. Three kinds of treatment are used:
Surgery (taking out the cancer).
Radiation therapy (using high-dose x-rays or other high-energy rays to kill cancer cells).
Chemotherapy (using drugs to kill cancer cells).
Surgery is the most common treatment of pheochromocytoma. A doctor may remove one or both adrenal glands in an operation called adrenalectomy. The doctor will look inside the abdomen to make sure all the cancer is removed. If the cancer has spread, lymph nodes or other tissues may also be taken out.
Chemotherapy uses drugs to kill cancer cells. Chemotherapy may be taken by pill, or it may be put into the body by a needle in the vein or muscle. Chemotherapy is called a systemic treatment because the drug enters the bloodstream, travels through the body, and can kill cancer cells throughout the body.
Radiation therapy uses high-energy x-rays to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation comes from a machine outside the body (external radiation therapy).
Description
What is pheochromocytoma?
Pheochromocytoma is a rare disease in which tumors form in chromaffin cells of the body. Most pheochromocytomas start inside the adrenal gland (the adrenal medulla) where most chromaffin cells are located. There are two adrenal glands, one above each kidney in the back of the upper abdomen. Cells in the adrenal glands make important hormones that help the body work properly. Usually pheochromocytoma affects only one adrenal gland. Pheochromocytoma may also start in other parts of the body, such as the area around the heart or bladder.
Most tumors that start in the chromaffin cells do not spread to other parts of the body and are not cancer. These are called benign tumors. If a tumor is found, the doctor will need to determine whether it is cancer or benign.
Pheochromocytomas often cause the adrenal glands to make too many hormones called catecholamines. The extra catecholamines cause high blood pressure (hypertension), which can cause headaches, sweating, pounding of the heart, pain in the chest, and a feeling of anxiety. High blood pressure that goes on for a long time without treatment can lead to heart disease, stroke, and other major health problems.
If there are symptoms, a doctor may order blood and urine tests to see if there are extra hormones in the body. A patient may also have a special nuclear medicine scan. A CT scan, an x-ray that uses a computer to make a picture of the inside of a part of the body or an MRI scan, which uses magnetic waves to make a picture of the abdomen, may also be done.
Pheochromocytoma is sometimes part of a condition called multiple endocrine neoplasia syndrome (MEN). People with MEN often have other cancers (such as thyroid cancer) and other hormonal problems.
The chance of recovery (prognosis) depends on how far the cancer has spread, and the patient’s age and general health.
Stage Explanation
Stages of pheochromocytoma
Once pheochromocytoma is found, more tests will be done to see if the tumor has spread. This is called staging. A doctor needs to know the stage of the disease to plan treatment. The following stages are used for pheochromocytoma:
Localized benign pheochromocytoma
Tumor is found in only one area and has not spread to other tissues. Most pheochromocytomas do not spread to other parts of the body and are not cancer.
Regional pheochromocytoma
Cancer has spread to lymph nodes in the area or to other tissues around the original cancer. (Lymph nodes are small bean-shaped structures that are found throughout the body. They produce and store infection-fighting cells.)
Metastatic pheochromocytoma
The cancer has spread to other parts of the body.
Recurrent pheochromocytoma
Recurrent disease means that the cancer has come back (recurred) after it has been treated. It may come back in the area where it started or in another part of the body.
Treatment Option Overview
How pheochromocytoma is treated
There are treatments for all patients with pheochromocytoma. Three kinds of treatment are used:
Surgery (taking out the cancer).
Radiation therapy (using high-dose x-rays or other high-energy rays to kill cancer cells).
Chemotherapy (using drugs to kill cancer cells).
Surgery is the most common treatment of pheochromocytoma. A doctor may remove one or both adrenal glands in an operation called adrenalectomy. The doctor will look inside the abdomen to make sure all the cancer is removed. If the cancer has spread, lymph nodes or other tissues may also be taken out.
Chemotherapy uses drugs to kill cancer cells. Chemotherapy may be taken by pill, or it may be put into the body by a needle in the vein or muscle. Chemotherapy is called a systemic treatment because the drug enters the bloodstream, travels through the body, and can kill cancer cells throughout the body.
Radiation therapy uses high-energy x-rays to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation comes from a machine outside the body (external radiation therapy).
Pituitary Tumor
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of pituitary tumors.Pituitary Tumors (PDQ®): TreatmentPituitary Tumors Treatment
Description
What are pituitary tumors?
Pituitary tumors are tumors found in the pituitary gland, a small organ about the size of a pea in the center of the brain just above the back of the nose. The pituitary gland makes hormones that affect growth and the functions of other glands in the body. Pituitary tumors may be grouped as follows:
Benign adenomas, which are noncancer. These grow very slowly and do not spread from the pituitary gland to other parts of the body.
Invasive adenomas, which spread to the outer covering of the brain, bones of the skull, or the sinus cavity below the pituitary gland.
Carcinomas, which are malignant (cancer). These are pituitary tumors that have spread far from the pituitary gland in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) or outside of the central nervous system.
These pituitary tumors may be either functioning or nonfunctioning. Tumors that make one or more of the pituitary hormones are called functioning tumors, while those that do not make hormones are called nonfunctioning tumors. Each type of functioning tumor causes different symptoms, depending on the type of hormone that is being made by the tumor. Symptoms may also be caused if the tumor grows large and presses on nearby parts of the brain. A doctor should be seen if there are symptoms such as these:
Headaches.
Trouble seeing or moving the eyes.
Vomiting.
Any of the symptoms caused by too many hormones, as described under the tumor types in the Stage Explanation section.
Some cancers in other parts of the body may metastasize (spread) to the pituitary gland, but these pituitary tumors usually do not cause symptoms. Breast and lung cancer are the most common types of cancer that spread to the pituitary.
If there are symptoms, a doctor may order laboratory tests to see what the hormone levels are in the blood. The doctor may also order an MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scan, which uses magnetic waves to make a picture of the inside of the brain. Other special x-rays may also be done.
Stage Explanation
Types of pituitary tumors
Pituitary tumors are classified according to size:
Microadenomas are smaller than 10 millimeters.
Macroadenomas are 10 millimeters or larger.
Most pituitary adenomas are microadenomas.
Once a pituitary tumor is found, more tests will be done to find out how far the tumor has spread, the type of tumor, and whether or not it makes hormones. A doctor needs to know the type of tumor to plan treatment. The following types of pituitary tumors are found:
Prolactin-producing tumors
These tumors make prolactin, a hormone that stimulates a woman’s breasts to make milk during and after pregnancy. Prolactin-secreting tumors can cause the breasts to make milk and menstrual periods to stop when a woman is not pregnant. In men, prolactin-producing tumors can cause impotence.
Description
What are pituitary tumors?
Pituitary tumors are tumors found in the pituitary gland, a small organ about the size of a pea in the center of the brain just above the back of the nose. The pituitary gland makes hormones that affect growth and the functions of other glands in the body. Pituitary tumors may be grouped as follows:
Benign adenomas, which are noncancer. These grow very slowly and do not spread from the pituitary gland to other parts of the body.
Invasive adenomas, which spread to the outer covering of the brain, bones of the skull, or the sinus cavity below the pituitary gland.
Carcinomas, which are malignant (cancer). These are pituitary tumors that have spread far from the pituitary gland in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) or outside of the central nervous system.
These pituitary tumors may be either functioning or nonfunctioning. Tumors that make one or more of the pituitary hormones are called functioning tumors, while those that do not make hormones are called nonfunctioning tumors. Each type of functioning tumor causes different symptoms, depending on the type of hormone that is being made by the tumor. Symptoms may also be caused if the tumor grows large and presses on nearby parts of the brain. A doctor should be seen if there are symptoms such as these:
Headaches.
Trouble seeing or moving the eyes.
Vomiting.
Any of the symptoms caused by too many hormones, as described under the tumor types in the Stage Explanation section.
Some cancers in other parts of the body may metastasize (spread) to the pituitary gland, but these pituitary tumors usually do not cause symptoms. Breast and lung cancer are the most common types of cancer that spread to the pituitary.
If there are symptoms, a doctor may order laboratory tests to see what the hormone levels are in the blood. The doctor may also order an MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scan, which uses magnetic waves to make a picture of the inside of the brain. Other special x-rays may also be done.
Stage Explanation
Types of pituitary tumors
Pituitary tumors are classified according to size:
Microadenomas are smaller than 10 millimeters.
Macroadenomas are 10 millimeters or larger.
Most pituitary adenomas are microadenomas.
Once a pituitary tumor is found, more tests will be done to find out how far the tumor has spread, the type of tumor, and whether or not it makes hormones. A doctor needs to know the type of tumor to plan treatment. The following types of pituitary tumors are found:
Prolactin-producing tumors
These tumors make prolactin, a hormone that stimulates a woman’s breasts to make milk during and after pregnancy. Prolactin-secreting tumors can cause the breasts to make milk and menstrual periods to stop when a woman is not pregnant. In men, prolactin-producing tumors can cause impotence.
Multiple Myeloma And Other Plasma Cell Neoplasms
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of multiple myeloma and other plasma cell neoplasms.Multiple Myeloma and Other Plasma Cell Neoplasms (PDQ®): TreatmentMultiple Myeloma and Other Plasma Cell Neoplasms Treatment
General Information About Multiple Myeloma and Other Plasma Cell Neoplasms
Multiple myeloma and other plasma cell neoplasms (cancers) are diseases in which the body makes too many plasma cells.
Plasma cells develop from B lymphocytes (B cells), a type of white blood cell that is made in the bone marrow. Normally, when bacteria or viruses enter the body, some of the B cells will change into plasma cells. The plasma cells make a different antibody to fight each type of bacteria or virus that enters the body, to stop infection and disease.
Plasma cell neoplasms are diseases in which there are too many plasma cells, or myeloma cells, that are unable to do their usual work in the bone marrow. When this happens there is less room for healthy red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. This condition may cause anemia or easy bleeding, or make it easier to get an infection. The abnormal plasma cells often form tumors in bones or soft tissues of the body. The plasma cells also make an antibody protein, called M protein, that is not needed by the body and does not help fight infection. These antibody proteins build up in the bone marrow and can cause the blood to thicken or can damage the kidneys.
There are several types of plasma cell neoplasms.
Plasma cell neoplasms include the following:
Multiple myeloma
In multiple myeloma, abnormal plasma cells (myeloma cells) build up in the bone marrow, forming tumors in many bones of the body. These tumors may prevent the bone marrow from making enough healthy blood cells. Normally, the bone marrow produces stem cells (immature cells) that develop into three types of mature blood cells:
Red blood cells that carry oxygen and other materials to all tissues of the body.
White blood cells that fight infection and disease.
Platelets that help prevent bleeding by causing blood clots to form.
As the number of myeloma cells increases, fewer red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are made. The myeloma cells also damage and weaken the hard parts of the bones. Sometimes multiple myeloma does not cause any symptoms. The following symptoms may be caused by multiple myeloma or other conditions. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:
Bone pain, often in the back or ribs.
Bones that break easily.
Fever for no known reason or frequent infections.
Easy bruising or bleeding.
Trouble breathing.
Weakness of the arms or legs.
Feeling very tired.
A tumor can damage the bone and cause hypercalcemia (a condition in which there is too much calcium in the blood). This can affect many organs in the body, including the kidneys, nerves, heart, muscles, and digestive tract, and cause serious health problems.
Hypercalcemia may cause the following symptoms:
Loss of appetite.
Nausea or vomiting.
Feeling thirsty.
Frequent urination.
Constipation.
Feeling very tired.
Muscle weakness.
Restlessness.
Mental confusion or trouble thinking.
In rare cases, multiple myeloma can cause organs to fail. This may be caused by a condition called amyloidosis. Antibody proteins build up and may bind together and collect in organs, such as the kidney and heart. This can cause the organs to become stiff and unable to function.
General Information About Multiple Myeloma and Other Plasma Cell Neoplasms
Multiple myeloma and other plasma cell neoplasms (cancers) are diseases in which the body makes too many plasma cells.
Plasma cells develop from B lymphocytes (B cells), a type of white blood cell that is made in the bone marrow. Normally, when bacteria or viruses enter the body, some of the B cells will change into plasma cells. The plasma cells make a different antibody to fight each type of bacteria or virus that enters the body, to stop infection and disease.
Plasma cell neoplasms are diseases in which there are too many plasma cells, or myeloma cells, that are unable to do their usual work in the bone marrow. When this happens there is less room for healthy red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. This condition may cause anemia or easy bleeding, or make it easier to get an infection. The abnormal plasma cells often form tumors in bones or soft tissues of the body. The plasma cells also make an antibody protein, called M protein, that is not needed by the body and does not help fight infection. These antibody proteins build up in the bone marrow and can cause the blood to thicken or can damage the kidneys.
There are several types of plasma cell neoplasms.
Plasma cell neoplasms include the following:
Multiple myeloma
In multiple myeloma, abnormal plasma cells (myeloma cells) build up in the bone marrow, forming tumors in many bones of the body. These tumors may prevent the bone marrow from making enough healthy blood cells. Normally, the bone marrow produces stem cells (immature cells) that develop into three types of mature blood cells:
Red blood cells that carry oxygen and other materials to all tissues of the body.
White blood cells that fight infection and disease.
Platelets that help prevent bleeding by causing blood clots to form.
As the number of myeloma cells increases, fewer red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are made. The myeloma cells also damage and weaken the hard parts of the bones. Sometimes multiple myeloma does not cause any symptoms. The following symptoms may be caused by multiple myeloma or other conditions. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:
Bone pain, often in the back or ribs.
Bones that break easily.
Fever for no known reason or frequent infections.
Easy bruising or bleeding.
Trouble breathing.
Weakness of the arms or legs.
Feeling very tired.
A tumor can damage the bone and cause hypercalcemia (a condition in which there is too much calcium in the blood). This can affect many organs in the body, including the kidneys, nerves, heart, muscles, and digestive tract, and cause serious health problems.
Hypercalcemia may cause the following symptoms:
Loss of appetite.
Nausea or vomiting.
Feeling thirsty.
Frequent urination.
Constipation.
Feeling very tired.
Muscle weakness.
Restlessness.
Mental confusion or trouble thinking.
In rare cases, multiple myeloma can cause organs to fail. This may be caused by a condition called amyloidosis. Antibody proteins build up and may bind together and collect in organs, such as the kidney and heart. This can cause the organs to become stiff and unable to function.
Prostate Cancer
What is it?
Prostate cancer is a malignant tumor of the prostate gland, a walnut-sized organ located in front of the rectum and right below the bladder. The function of the prostate gland is to produce part of seminal fluid, the solution that carries sperm.
Prostate cancer is the most common type of cancer found in American men, other than nonmelanoma skin cancer. It is second only to lung cancer as the most common cause of male cancer-related death. The American Cancer Society estimates that in 2002, approximately 189,000 new cases will be diagnosed in the United States and 30,200 men will die from the disease.
Like all cancers, prostate cancer is a disease of uncontrolled cell growth. Cells become cancerous when they divide unpredictably and form tumors. As tumors grow, they squeeze surrounding healthy tissue and use oxygen that would normally be used by healthy cells. They also secrete protein signals that initiate the formation of new blood vessels for the tumor. As a prostate tumor grows, it may spread to the entire prostate gland or to lymph nodes, other organs, or bone.
While there is no known cause for prostate cancer, risk factors include:
Age
The risk for prostate cancer increases with age, with men over age 65 at highest risk.
Race
African American men are more than twice as likely to be diagnosed with prostate cancer as Caucasian Americans.
Family history
Studies show that a man's risk for prostate cancer increases if a close male relative (father, brother, uncle, grandfather) has the disease.
Diet
Some studies suggest that a high-fat diet, particularly red meat and dairy products, appears to simulate the growth of prostate cancer cells.
Most early prostate cancers cause no symptoms. When symptoms are present, they may include changes in urination flow, frequency or urgency; erectile difficulties; or pelvic, hip, or back pain. These symptoms may also occur in other diseases unrelated to prostate cancer.
The prostate-specific antigen (PSA) blood test and the digital rectal examination (DRE) are the most effective tests currently available for the early detection of prostate cancer. As part of an annual checkup, the American Cancer Society recommends the DRE and PSA test for:
men 50 and older with a life expectancy of at least 10 years
younger men who are at increased risk for prostate cancer, including men with a family history of the disease and African American men.
More information:
The Prostate Gland
The Prostate Cancer pages of this Web site are part of the Comprehensive Prostate Cancer Awareness Program (CPCAP), a major regional effort to reduce the rates of death and illness caused by prostate cancer in southwestern Pennsylvania. Funding for CPCAP is provided by a grant from the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.
Prostate cancer is a malignant tumor of the prostate gland, a walnut-sized organ located in front of the rectum and right below the bladder. The function of the prostate gland is to produce part of seminal fluid, the solution that carries sperm.
Prostate cancer is the most common type of cancer found in American men, other than nonmelanoma skin cancer. It is second only to lung cancer as the most common cause of male cancer-related death. The American Cancer Society estimates that in 2002, approximately 189,000 new cases will be diagnosed in the United States and 30,200 men will die from the disease.
Like all cancers, prostate cancer is a disease of uncontrolled cell growth. Cells become cancerous when they divide unpredictably and form tumors. As tumors grow, they squeeze surrounding healthy tissue and use oxygen that would normally be used by healthy cells. They also secrete protein signals that initiate the formation of new blood vessels for the tumor. As a prostate tumor grows, it may spread to the entire prostate gland or to lymph nodes, other organs, or bone.
While there is no known cause for prostate cancer, risk factors include:
Age
The risk for prostate cancer increases with age, with men over age 65 at highest risk.
Race
African American men are more than twice as likely to be diagnosed with prostate cancer as Caucasian Americans.
Family history
Studies show that a man's risk for prostate cancer increases if a close male relative (father, brother, uncle, grandfather) has the disease.
Diet
Some studies suggest that a high-fat diet, particularly red meat and dairy products, appears to simulate the growth of prostate cancer cells.
Most early prostate cancers cause no symptoms. When symptoms are present, they may include changes in urination flow, frequency or urgency; erectile difficulties; or pelvic, hip, or back pain. These symptoms may also occur in other diseases unrelated to prostate cancer.
The prostate-specific antigen (PSA) blood test and the digital rectal examination (DRE) are the most effective tests currently available for the early detection of prostate cancer. As part of an annual checkup, the American Cancer Society recommends the DRE and PSA test for:
men 50 and older with a life expectancy of at least 10 years
younger men who are at increased risk for prostate cancer, including men with a family history of the disease and African American men.
More information:
The Prostate Gland
The Prostate Cancer pages of this Web site are part of the Comprehensive Prostate Cancer Awareness Program (CPCAP), a major regional effort to reduce the rates of death and illness caused by prostate cancer in southwestern Pennsylvania. Funding for CPCAP is provided by a grant from the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.
Childhood Rhabdomyosarcoma
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of childhood rhabdomyosarcoma.Childhood Rhabdomyosarcoma (PDQ®): TreatmentChildhood Rhabdomyosarcoma Treatment
General Information About Childhood Rhabdomyosarcoma
Childhood rhabdomyosarcoma is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in muscle tissue.
Rhabdomyosarcoma is a type of sarcoma. Sarcoma is cancer of soft tissue (such as muscle), connective tissue (such as tendon or cartilage), and bone. Rhabdomyosarcoma usually begins in muscles that are attached to bones and that help the body move. Rhabdomyosarcoma is the most common type of sarcoma found in the soft tissues of children. It can occur in many places in the body.
There are three main types of rhabodomyosarcoma:
Embryonal: This type occurs most often in the head and neck area or in the genital or urinary organs. It is the most common type.
Alveolar: This type occurs most often in the arms or legs, chest, abdomen, or genital or anal areas. It usually occurs during the teen years.
Anaplastic: This type rarely occurs in children.
See the following PDQ treatment summaries for more information about sarcomas:
Childhood Soft Tissue Sarcoma
Ewing Family of Tumors
Adult Soft Tissue Sarcoma
Certain genetic conditions increase the risk of childhood rhabdomyosarcoma.
Anything that increases the risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer; not having risk factors doesn’t mean that you will not get cancer. Parents who think their child may be at risk should discuss this with the child's doctor. Risk factors for rhabdomyosarcoma include having the following inherited diseases:
Li-Fraumeni syndrome.
Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1).
Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome.
Costello syndrome.
In most cases, the cause of rhabdomyosarcoma is not known.
General Information About Childhood Rhabdomyosarcoma
Childhood rhabdomyosarcoma is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in muscle tissue.
Rhabdomyosarcoma is a type of sarcoma. Sarcoma is cancer of soft tissue (such as muscle), connective tissue (such as tendon or cartilage), and bone. Rhabdomyosarcoma usually begins in muscles that are attached to bones and that help the body move. Rhabdomyosarcoma is the most common type of sarcoma found in the soft tissues of children. It can occur in many places in the body.
There are three main types of rhabodomyosarcoma:
Embryonal: This type occurs most often in the head and neck area or in the genital or urinary organs. It is the most common type.
Alveolar: This type occurs most often in the arms or legs, chest, abdomen, or genital or anal areas. It usually occurs during the teen years.
Anaplastic: This type rarely occurs in children.
See the following PDQ treatment summaries for more information about sarcomas:
Childhood Soft Tissue Sarcoma
Ewing Family of Tumors
Adult Soft Tissue Sarcoma
Certain genetic conditions increase the risk of childhood rhabdomyosarcoma.
Anything that increases the risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer; not having risk factors doesn’t mean that you will not get cancer. Parents who think their child may be at risk should discuss this with the child's doctor. Risk factors for rhabdomyosarcoma include having the following inherited diseases:
Li-Fraumeni syndrome.
Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1).
Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome.
Costello syndrome.
In most cases, the cause of rhabdomyosarcoma is not known.
Rectal Cancer
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of rectal cancer.Rectal Cancer (PDQ®): TreatmentRectal Cancer Treatment
General Information About Rectal Cancer
Rectal cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the rectum.
The rectum is part of the body’s digestive system. The digestive system removes and processes nutrients (vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water) from foods and helps pass waste material out of the body. The digestive system is made up of the esophagus, stomach, and the small and large intestines. The first 6 feet of the large intestine are called the large bowel or colon. The last 6 inches are the rectum and the anal canal. The anal canal ends at the anus (the opening of the large intestine to the outside of the body).
Anatomy of the lower digestive system, showing the colon and other organs. | View a Larger Version
Age and family history can affect the risk of developing rectal cancer.
The following are possible risk factors for rectal cancer:
Age 50 or older.
A family history of cancer of the colon or rectum.
A personal history of cancer of the colon, rectum, ovary, endometrium, or breast.
A personal history of ulcerative colitis (ulcers in the lining of the large intestine) or Crohn disease.
Certain hereditary conditions, such as familial adenomatous polyposis and hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer (HNPCC; Lynch syndrome).
Possible signs of rectal cancer include a change in bowel habits or blood in the stool.
These and other symptoms may be caused by rectal cancer. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:
A change in bowel habits.
Blood (either bright red or very dark) in the stool.
Diarrhea, constipation, or feeling that the bowel does not empty completely.
Stools that are narrower than usual.
General abdominal discomfort (frequent gas pains, bloating, fullness, or cramps).
Weight loss for no known reason.
Feeling very tired.
Vomiting.
General Information About Rectal Cancer
Rectal cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the rectum.
The rectum is part of the body’s digestive system. The digestive system removes and processes nutrients (vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water) from foods and helps pass waste material out of the body. The digestive system is made up of the esophagus, stomach, and the small and large intestines. The first 6 feet of the large intestine are called the large bowel or colon. The last 6 inches are the rectum and the anal canal. The anal canal ends at the anus (the opening of the large intestine to the outside of the body).
Anatomy of the lower digestive system, showing the colon and other organs. | View a Larger Version
Age and family history can affect the risk of developing rectal cancer.
The following are possible risk factors for rectal cancer:
Age 50 or older.
A family history of cancer of the colon or rectum.
A personal history of cancer of the colon, rectum, ovary, endometrium, or breast.
A personal history of ulcerative colitis (ulcers in the lining of the large intestine) or Crohn disease.
Certain hereditary conditions, such as familial adenomatous polyposis and hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer (HNPCC; Lynch syndrome).
Possible signs of rectal cancer include a change in bowel habits or blood in the stool.
These and other symptoms may be caused by rectal cancer. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:
A change in bowel habits.
Blood (either bright red or very dark) in the stool.
Diarrhea, constipation, or feeling that the bowel does not empty completely.
Stools that are narrower than usual.
General abdominal discomfort (frequent gas pains, bloating, fullness, or cramps).
Weight loss for no known reason.
Feeling very tired.
Vomiting.
Renal Cell Carcinoma
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of renal cell cancer.Renal Cell Cancer (PDQ®): TreatmentRenal Cell Cancer Treatment
General Information About Renal Cell Cancer
Renal cell cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in tubules of the kidney.
Renal cell cancer (also called kidney cancer or renal adenocarcinoma) is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells are found in the lining of tubules (very small tubes) in the kidney. There are 2 kidneys, one on each side of the backbone, above the waist. The tiny tubules in the kidneys filter and clean the blood, taking out waste products and making urine. The urine passes from each kidney into the bladder through a long tube called a ureter. The bladder stores the urine until it is passed from the body.
Cancer that starts in the ureters or the renal pelvis (the part of the kidney that collects urine and drains it to the ureters) is different from renal cell cancer. Refer to the PDQ summary on Transitional Cell Cancer of the Renal Pelvis and Ureter Treatment for more information).
Smoking and misuse of certain pain medicines can affect the risk of developing renal cell cancer.
Risk factors include the following:
Smoking.
Misusing certain pain medicines, including over-the-counter pain medicines, for a long time.
Having certain genetic conditions, such as von Hippel-Lindau disease or hereditary papillary renal cell carcinoma.
Possible signs of renal cell cancer include blood in the urine and a lump in the abdomen.
These and other symptoms may be caused by renal cell cancer. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. There may be no symptoms in the early stages. Symptoms may appear as the tumor grows. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:
Blood in the urine.
A lump in the abdomen.
A pain in the side that doesn't go away.
Loss of appetite.
Weight loss for no known reason.
Anemia.
General Information About Renal Cell Cancer
Renal cell cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in tubules of the kidney.
Renal cell cancer (also called kidney cancer or renal adenocarcinoma) is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells are found in the lining of tubules (very small tubes) in the kidney. There are 2 kidneys, one on each side of the backbone, above the waist. The tiny tubules in the kidneys filter and clean the blood, taking out waste products and making urine. The urine passes from each kidney into the bladder through a long tube called a ureter. The bladder stores the urine until it is passed from the body.
Cancer that starts in the ureters or the renal pelvis (the part of the kidney that collects urine and drains it to the ureters) is different from renal cell cancer. Refer to the PDQ summary on Transitional Cell Cancer of the Renal Pelvis and Ureter Treatment for more information).
Smoking and misuse of certain pain medicines can affect the risk of developing renal cell cancer.
Risk factors include the following:
Smoking.
Misusing certain pain medicines, including over-the-counter pain medicines, for a long time.
Having certain genetic conditions, such as von Hippel-Lindau disease or hereditary papillary renal cell carcinoma.
Possible signs of renal cell cancer include blood in the urine and a lump in the abdomen.
These and other symptoms may be caused by renal cell cancer. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. There may be no symptoms in the early stages. Symptoms may appear as the tumor grows. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:
Blood in the urine.
A lump in the abdomen.
A pain in the side that doesn't go away.
Loss of appetite.
Weight loss for no known reason.
Anemia.
Transitional Cell Cancer Of The Renal Pelvis And Ureter
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of renal pelvis and ureter transitional cell cancer.Transitional Cell Cancer of the Renal Pelvis and Ureter (PDQ®): TreatmentTransitional Cell Cancer (Kidney/Ureter) Treatment
General Information About Transitional Cell Cancer of the Renal Pelvis and Ureter
Transitional cell cancer of the renal pelvis and ureter is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the renal pelvis and ureter.
The renal pelvis is part of the kidney and the ureter connects the kidney to the bladder. There are 2 kidneys, one on each side of the backbone, above the waist. The kidneys of an adult are about 5 inches long and 3 inches wide and are shaped like a kidney bean. The kidneys clean the blood and produce urine to rid the body of waste. The urine collects in the middle of each kidney in a large cavity called the renal pelvis. Urine drains from each kidney through a long tube called the ureter, into the bladder, where it is stored until it is passed from the body through the urethra.
The renal pelvis and ureters are lined with transitional cells. These cells can change shape and stretch without breaking apart. Transitional cell cancer starts in these cells. Transitional cell cancer can form in the renal pelvis or the ureter or both.
Renal cell cancer is a more common type of kidney cancer. Refer to the PDQ summary on Renal Cell Cancer Treatment for more information.
Misuse of certain pain medicines can affect the risk of developing transitional cell cancer of the renal pelvis and ureter.
Risk factors include the following:
Misusing certain pain medicines, including over-the-counter pain medicines, for a long time.
Being exposed to certain dyes and chemicals used in making leather goods, textiles, plastics, and rubber.
Smoking cigarettes.
Possible signs of transitional cell cancer of the renal pelvis and ureter include blood in the urine and back pain.
These and other symptoms may be caused by transitional cell cancer of the renal pelvis and ureter. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. There may be no symptoms in the early stages. Symptoms may appear as the tumor grows. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:
Blood in the urine.
A pain in the back that doesn't go away.
Extreme tiredness.
Weight loss with no known reason.
Painful or frequent urination.
General Information About Transitional Cell Cancer of the Renal Pelvis and Ureter
Transitional cell cancer of the renal pelvis and ureter is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the renal pelvis and ureter.
The renal pelvis is part of the kidney and the ureter connects the kidney to the bladder. There are 2 kidneys, one on each side of the backbone, above the waist. The kidneys of an adult are about 5 inches long and 3 inches wide and are shaped like a kidney bean. The kidneys clean the blood and produce urine to rid the body of waste. The urine collects in the middle of each kidney in a large cavity called the renal pelvis. Urine drains from each kidney through a long tube called the ureter, into the bladder, where it is stored until it is passed from the body through the urethra.
The renal pelvis and ureters are lined with transitional cells. These cells can change shape and stretch without breaking apart. Transitional cell cancer starts in these cells. Transitional cell cancer can form in the renal pelvis or the ureter or both.
Renal cell cancer is a more common type of kidney cancer. Refer to the PDQ summary on Renal Cell Cancer Treatment for more information.
Misuse of certain pain medicines can affect the risk of developing transitional cell cancer of the renal pelvis and ureter.
Risk factors include the following:
Misusing certain pain medicines, including over-the-counter pain medicines, for a long time.
Being exposed to certain dyes and chemicals used in making leather goods, textiles, plastics, and rubber.
Smoking cigarettes.
Possible signs of transitional cell cancer of the renal pelvis and ureter include blood in the urine and back pain.
These and other symptoms may be caused by transitional cell cancer of the renal pelvis and ureter. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. There may be no symptoms in the early stages. Symptoms may appear as the tumor grows. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:
Blood in the urine.
A pain in the back that doesn't go away.
Extreme tiredness.
Weight loss with no known reason.
Painful or frequent urination.
Salivary Gland Cancer
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of salivary gland cancer.Salivary Gland Cancer (PDQ®): TreatmentSalivary Gland Cancer Treatment
General Information About Salivary Gland Cancer
Salivary gland cancer is a rare disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the salivary glands.
The salivary glands make saliva and release it into the mouth. Saliva has enzymes that help digest food and antibodies that help protect against infections of the mouth and throat. There are 3 pairs of major salivary glands:
Parotid glands: These are the largest salivary glands and are found in front of and just below each ear. Most major salivary gland tumors begin in this gland.
Sublingual glands: These glands are found under the tongue in the floor of the mouth.
Submandibular glands: These glands are found below the jawbone.
There are also hundreds of small (minor) salivary glands lining parts of the mouth, nose, and larynx that can be seen only with a microscope. Most small salivary gland tumors begin in the palate (roof of the mouth).
More than half of all salivary gland tumors are benign (not cancerous) and do not spread to other tissues.
Being exposed to certain types of radiation may increase the risk of salivary cancer.
Anything that increases the chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Although the cause of most salivary gland cancers is not known, risk factors include the following:
Older age.
Treatment with radiation therapy to the head and neck.
Being exposed to certain substances at work.
General Information About Salivary Gland Cancer
Salivary gland cancer is a rare disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the salivary glands.
The salivary glands make saliva and release it into the mouth. Saliva has enzymes that help digest food and antibodies that help protect against infections of the mouth and throat. There are 3 pairs of major salivary glands:
Parotid glands: These are the largest salivary glands and are found in front of and just below each ear. Most major salivary gland tumors begin in this gland.
Sublingual glands: These glands are found under the tongue in the floor of the mouth.
Submandibular glands: These glands are found below the jawbone.
There are also hundreds of small (minor) salivary glands lining parts of the mouth, nose, and larynx that can be seen only with a microscope. Most small salivary gland tumors begin in the palate (roof of the mouth).
More than half of all salivary gland tumors are benign (not cancerous) and do not spread to other tissues.
Being exposed to certain types of radiation may increase the risk of salivary cancer.
Anything that increases the chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Although the cause of most salivary gland cancers is not known, risk factors include the following:
Older age.
Treatment with radiation therapy to the head and neck.
Being exposed to certain substances at work.
Mycosis Fungoides/Sezary Syndrome
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of mycosis fungoides and the Sézary syndrome.Mycosis Fungoides and the Sezary Syndrome (PDQ®): TreatmentMycosis Fungoides and the Sézary Syndrome Treatment
General Information About Mycosis Fungoides and the Sézary Syndrome
Mycosis fungoides and the Sézary syndrome are diseases in which lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell) become malignant (cancerous) and affect the skin.
Lymphocytes are made in the bone marrow and fight infection and disease. There are three types of lymphocytes:
B-cell lymphocytes that make antibodies to help fight infection.
T-cell lymphocytes that help B-lymphocytes make the antibodies that help fight infection.
Natural killer cells that attack cancer cells and viruses.
In mycosis fungoides, T-cell lymphocytes become cancerous and affect the skin. In the Sézary syndrome, cancerous T-cell lymphocytes affect the skin and the peripheral blood.
Mycosis fungoides and the Sézary syndrome are types of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma.
This summary describes the two most common types of cutaneous T-cell lymphomas: mycosis fungoides and the Sézary syndrome. For information about other types of skin cancer or non-Hodgkin lymphoma, refer to the following PDQ summaries:
Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment
Skin Cancer Treatment
Melanoma Treatment
Kaposi’s Sarcoma Treatment
General Information About Mycosis Fungoides and the Sézary Syndrome
Mycosis fungoides and the Sézary syndrome are diseases in which lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell) become malignant (cancerous) and affect the skin.
Lymphocytes are made in the bone marrow and fight infection and disease. There are three types of lymphocytes:
B-cell lymphocytes that make antibodies to help fight infection.
T-cell lymphocytes that help B-lymphocytes make the antibodies that help fight infection.
Natural killer cells that attack cancer cells and viruses.
In mycosis fungoides, T-cell lymphocytes become cancerous and affect the skin. In the Sézary syndrome, cancerous T-cell lymphocytes affect the skin and the peripheral blood.
Mycosis fungoides and the Sézary syndrome are types of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma.
This summary describes the two most common types of cutaneous T-cell lymphomas: mycosis fungoides and the Sézary syndrome. For information about other types of skin cancer or non-Hodgkin lymphoma, refer to the following PDQ summaries:
Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment
Skin Cancer Treatment
Melanoma Treatment
Kaposi’s Sarcoma Treatment
Skin Cancer
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of skin cancer.Skin Cancer (PDQ®): TreatmentSkin Cancer Treatment
General Information About Skin Cancer
Skin cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the skin.
The skin is the body’s largest organ. It protects against heat, sunlight, injury, and infection. Skin also helps control body temperature and stores water, fat, and vitamin D. The skin has several layers, but the two main layers are the epidermis (upper or outer layer) and the dermis (lower or inner layer). Skin cancer begins in the epidermis, which is made up of 3 kinds of cells:
Squamous cells: Thin, flat cells that form the top layer of the epidermis.
Basal cells: Round cells under the squamous cells.
Melanocytes: Found in the lower part of the epidermis, these cells make melanin, the pigment that gives skin its natural color. When skin is exposed to the sun, melanocytes make more pigment, causing the skin to darken.
Skin cancer can occur anywhere on the body, but it is most common in skin that has been exposed to sunlight, such as the face, neck, hands, and arms. There are several types of cancer that start in the skin. The most common types are basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma, which are nonmelanoma skin cancers. Actinic keratosis is a skin condition that sometimes develops into squamous cell carcinoma.
This summary refers to the treatment of nonmelanoma skin cancer and actinic keratosis. Nonmelanoma skin cancers rarely spread to other parts of the body. Melanoma, the rarest form of skin cancer, is more likely to invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body. See the following PDQ summaries for information on melanoma and other kinds of skin cancer:
Melanoma Treatment
Mycosis Fungoides and the Sézary Syndrome Treatment
Kaposi Sarcoma Treatment
General Information About Skin Cancer
Skin cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the skin.
The skin is the body’s largest organ. It protects against heat, sunlight, injury, and infection. Skin also helps control body temperature and stores water, fat, and vitamin D. The skin has several layers, but the two main layers are the epidermis (upper or outer layer) and the dermis (lower or inner layer). Skin cancer begins in the epidermis, which is made up of 3 kinds of cells:
Squamous cells: Thin, flat cells that form the top layer of the epidermis.
Basal cells: Round cells under the squamous cells.
Melanocytes: Found in the lower part of the epidermis, these cells make melanin, the pigment that gives skin its natural color. When skin is exposed to the sun, melanocytes make more pigment, causing the skin to darken.
Skin cancer can occur anywhere on the body, but it is most common in skin that has been exposed to sunlight, such as the face, neck, hands, and arms. There are several types of cancer that start in the skin. The most common types are basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma, which are nonmelanoma skin cancers. Actinic keratosis is a skin condition that sometimes develops into squamous cell carcinoma.
This summary refers to the treatment of nonmelanoma skin cancer and actinic keratosis. Nonmelanoma skin cancers rarely spread to other parts of the body. Melanoma, the rarest form of skin cancer, is more likely to invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body. See the following PDQ summaries for information on melanoma and other kinds of skin cancer:
Melanoma Treatment
Mycosis Fungoides and the Sézary Syndrome Treatment
Kaposi Sarcoma Treatment
Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma.Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma (PDQ®): TreatmentAdult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment
General Information About Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
Adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the lymph system.
The lymph system is part of the immune system and is made up of the following:
Lymph: Colorless, watery fluid that travels through the lymph system and carries white blood cells called lymphocytes. Lymphocytes protect the body against infections and the growth of tumors.
Lymph vessels: A network of thin tubes that collect lymph from different parts of the body and return it to the bloodstream.
Lymph nodes: Small, bean-shaped structures that filter lymph and store white blood cells that help fight infection and disease. Lymph nodes are located along the network of lymph vessels found throughout the body. Clusters of lymph nodes are found in the underarm, pelvis, neck, abdomen, and groin.
Spleen: An organ that makes lymphocytes, filters the blood, stores blood cells, and destroys old blood cells. It is on the left side of the abdomen near the stomach.
Thymus: An organ in which lymphocytes grow and multiply. The thymus is in the chest behind the breastbone.
Tonsils: Two small masses of lymph tissue at the back of the throat. The tonsils make lymphocytes.
Bone marrow: The soft, spongy tissue in the center of large bones. Bone marrow makes white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets.
Anatomy of the lymph system, showing the lymph vessels and lymph organs including lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus, spleen, and bone marrow. Lymph (clear fluid) and lymphocytes travel through the lymph vessels and into the lymph nodes where the lymphocytes destroy harmful substances. The lymph enters the blood through a large vein near the heart. | View a Larger Version
Because lymph tissue is found throughout the body, adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma can begin in almost any part of the body. Cancer can spread to the liver and many other organs and tissues.
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma in pregnant women is the same as the disease in nonpregnant women of childbearing age. However, treatment is different for pregnant women. This summary includes information on the treatment of non-Hodgkin lymphoma during pregnancy.
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma can occur in both adults and children. Treatment for children, however, is different than treatment for adults. (See the PDQ summary on Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment for more information.)
There are many different types of lymphoma.
Lymphomas are divided into two general types: Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. This summary is about the treatment of adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma. For information about other types of lymphoma, see the following PDQ summaries:
Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Treatment
Adult Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment
AIDS-Related Lymphoma Treatment
Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Treatment
Hairy Cell Leukemia Treatment
Multiple Myeloma and Other Plasma Cell Neoplasms Treatment
Mycosis Fungoides and the Sézary Syndrome Treatment
Primary CNS Lymphoma Treatment
General Information About Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
Adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the lymph system.
The lymph system is part of the immune system and is made up of the following:
Lymph: Colorless, watery fluid that travels through the lymph system and carries white blood cells called lymphocytes. Lymphocytes protect the body against infections and the growth of tumors.
Lymph vessels: A network of thin tubes that collect lymph from different parts of the body and return it to the bloodstream.
Lymph nodes: Small, bean-shaped structures that filter lymph and store white blood cells that help fight infection and disease. Lymph nodes are located along the network of lymph vessels found throughout the body. Clusters of lymph nodes are found in the underarm, pelvis, neck, abdomen, and groin.
Spleen: An organ that makes lymphocytes, filters the blood, stores blood cells, and destroys old blood cells. It is on the left side of the abdomen near the stomach.
Thymus: An organ in which lymphocytes grow and multiply. The thymus is in the chest behind the breastbone.
Tonsils: Two small masses of lymph tissue at the back of the throat. The tonsils make lymphocytes.
Bone marrow: The soft, spongy tissue in the center of large bones. Bone marrow makes white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets.
Anatomy of the lymph system, showing the lymph vessels and lymph organs including lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus, spleen, and bone marrow. Lymph (clear fluid) and lymphocytes travel through the lymph vessels and into the lymph nodes where the lymphocytes destroy harmful substances. The lymph enters the blood through a large vein near the heart. | View a Larger Version
Because lymph tissue is found throughout the body, adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma can begin in almost any part of the body. Cancer can spread to the liver and many other organs and tissues.
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma in pregnant women is the same as the disease in nonpregnant women of childbearing age. However, treatment is different for pregnant women. This summary includes information on the treatment of non-Hodgkin lymphoma during pregnancy.
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma can occur in both adults and children. Treatment for children, however, is different than treatment for adults. (See the PDQ summary on Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment for more information.)
There are many different types of lymphoma.
Lymphomas are divided into two general types: Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. This summary is about the treatment of adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma. For information about other types of lymphoma, see the following PDQ summaries:
Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Treatment
Adult Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment
AIDS-Related Lymphoma Treatment
Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Treatment
Hairy Cell Leukemia Treatment
Multiple Myeloma and Other Plasma Cell Neoplasms Treatment
Mycosis Fungoides and the Sézary Syndrome Treatment
Primary CNS Lymphoma Treatment
Kaposi Sarcoma
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of Kaposi sarcoma.Kaposi Sarcoma (PDQ®): TreatmentKaposi Sarcoma Treatment
General Information About Kaposi Sarcoma
Kaposi sarcoma is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissue lining the lymph vessels under the skin or in mucous membranes.
Kaposi sarcoma is a cancer that causes lesions (abnormal tissue) to grow under the skin, in the lining of the mouth, nose, and throat, or in other organs. The lesions are usually purple and are made of cancer cells, new blood vessels, and white blood cells. Kaposi sarcoma is different from other cancers in that lesions may begin in more than one place in the body at the same time.
Human herpesvirus-8 (HHV-8) is found in the lesions of all patients with Kaposi sarcoma. This virus is also called Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV). Most people infected with HHV-8 do not get Kaposi sarcoma. Those infected with HHV-8 who are most likely to develop Kaposi sarcoma have immune systems weakened by disease or by drugs given after an organ transplant.
There are several types of Kaposi sarcoma, including:
Classic Kaposi sarcoma.
African Kaposi sarcoma.
Immunosuppressive treatment-related Kaposi sarcoma.
Epidemic Kaposi sarcoma.
Nonepidemic Kaposi sarcoma.
Tests that examine the skin, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract are used to detect (find) and diagnose Kaposi sarcoma.
The following tests and procedures may be used:
Physical exam and history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking skin and lymph nodes for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient's health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer.
Chest x-ray: An x-ray of the organs and bones inside the chest. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body. This is used to find Kaposi sarcoma in the lungs.
Endoscopy: A procedure to look at organs and tissues inside the body to check for abnormal areas. An endoscope is inserted through an incision (cut) in the skin or opening in the body, such as the mouth. An endoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to remove tissue or lymph node samples, which are checked under a microscope for signs of disease. This is used to find Kaposi sarcoma lesions in the gastrointestinal tract.
Bronchoscopy: A procedure to look inside the trachea and large airways in the lung for abnormal areas. A bronchoscope is inserted through the nose or mouth into the trachea and lungs. A bronchoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to remove tissue samples, which are checked under a microscope for signs of cancer.
General Information About Kaposi Sarcoma
Kaposi sarcoma is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissue lining the lymph vessels under the skin or in mucous membranes.
Kaposi sarcoma is a cancer that causes lesions (abnormal tissue) to grow under the skin, in the lining of the mouth, nose, and throat, or in other organs. The lesions are usually purple and are made of cancer cells, new blood vessels, and white blood cells. Kaposi sarcoma is different from other cancers in that lesions may begin in more than one place in the body at the same time.
Human herpesvirus-8 (HHV-8) is found in the lesions of all patients with Kaposi sarcoma. This virus is also called Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV). Most people infected with HHV-8 do not get Kaposi sarcoma. Those infected with HHV-8 who are most likely to develop Kaposi sarcoma have immune systems weakened by disease or by drugs given after an organ transplant.
There are several types of Kaposi sarcoma, including:
Classic Kaposi sarcoma.
African Kaposi sarcoma.
Immunosuppressive treatment-related Kaposi sarcoma.
Epidemic Kaposi sarcoma.
Nonepidemic Kaposi sarcoma.
Tests that examine the skin, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract are used to detect (find) and diagnose Kaposi sarcoma.
The following tests and procedures may be used:
Physical exam and history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking skin and lymph nodes for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient's health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer.
Chest x-ray: An x-ray of the organs and bones inside the chest. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body. This is used to find Kaposi sarcoma in the lungs.
Endoscopy: A procedure to look at organs and tissues inside the body to check for abnormal areas. An endoscope is inserted through an incision (cut) in the skin or opening in the body, such as the mouth. An endoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to remove tissue or lymph node samples, which are checked under a microscope for signs of disease. This is used to find Kaposi sarcoma lesions in the gastrointestinal tract.
Bronchoscopy: A procedure to look inside the trachea and large airways in the lung for abnormal areas. A bronchoscope is inserted through the nose or mouth into the trachea and lungs. A bronchoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to remove tissue samples, which are checked under a microscope for signs of cancer.
Melanoma
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of melanoma.Melanoma (PDQ®): TreatmentMelanoma Treatment
General Information About Melanoma
Melanoma is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the skin cells called melanocytes (cells that color the skin).
Melanocytes are found throughout the lower part of the epidermis. They make melanin, the pigment that gives skin its natural color. When skin is exposed to the sun, melanocytes make more pigment, causing the skin to tan, or darken.
The skin is the body’s largest organ. It protects against heat, sunlight, injury, and infection. The skin has 2 main layers: the epidermis (upper or outer layer) and the dermis (lower or inner layer).
When melanoma starts in the skin, the disease is called cutaneous melanoma. This PDQ summary is about cutaneous (skin) melanoma. Melanoma may also occur in the eye and is called intraocular or ocular melanoma. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Intraocular (Eye) Melanoma Treatment for more information.)
There are 3 types of skin cancer:
Melanoma.
Basal cell skin cancer.
Squamous cell skin cancer.
Melanoma is more aggressive than basal cell skin cancer or squamous cell skin cancer. (See the PDQ summary on Skin Cancer Treatment for more information on basal cell and squamous cell skin cancer.)
Melanoma can occur anywhere on the body.
In men, melanoma is often found on the trunk (the area from the shoulders to the hips) or the head and neck. In women, melanoma often develops on the arms and legs. Melanoma usually occurs in adults, but it is sometimes found in children and adolescents.
Unusual moles, exposure to sunlight, and health history can affect the risk of developing melanoma.
Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Risk factors for melanoma include the following:
Unusual moles.
Exposure to natural sunlight.
Exposure to artificial ultraviolet light (tanning booth).
Family or personal history of melanoma.
Being white and older than 20 years.
Red or blond hair.
White or light-colored skin and freckles.
Blue eyes.
General Information About Melanoma
Melanoma is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the skin cells called melanocytes (cells that color the skin).
Melanocytes are found throughout the lower part of the epidermis. They make melanin, the pigment that gives skin its natural color. When skin is exposed to the sun, melanocytes make more pigment, causing the skin to tan, or darken.
The skin is the body’s largest organ. It protects against heat, sunlight, injury, and infection. The skin has 2 main layers: the epidermis (upper or outer layer) and the dermis (lower or inner layer).
When melanoma starts in the skin, the disease is called cutaneous melanoma. This PDQ summary is about cutaneous (skin) melanoma. Melanoma may also occur in the eye and is called intraocular or ocular melanoma. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Intraocular (Eye) Melanoma Treatment for more information.)
There are 3 types of skin cancer:
Melanoma.
Basal cell skin cancer.
Squamous cell skin cancer.
Melanoma is more aggressive than basal cell skin cancer or squamous cell skin cancer. (See the PDQ summary on Skin Cancer Treatment for more information on basal cell and squamous cell skin cancer.)
Melanoma can occur anywhere on the body.
In men, melanoma is often found on the trunk (the area from the shoulders to the hips) or the head and neck. In women, melanoma often develops on the arms and legs. Melanoma usually occurs in adults, but it is sometimes found in children and adolescents.
Unusual moles, exposure to sunlight, and health history can affect the risk of developing melanoma.
Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Risk factors for melanoma include the following:
Unusual moles.
Exposure to natural sunlight.
Exposure to artificial ultraviolet light (tanning booth).
Family or personal history of melanoma.
Being white and older than 20 years.
Red or blond hair.
White or light-colored skin and freckles.
Blue eyes.
Small Intestine Cancer
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of small intestine cancer.Small Intestine Cancer (PDQ®): TreatmentSmall Intestine Cancer Treatment
General Information About Small Intestine Cancer
Small intestine cancer is a rare disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the small intestine.
The small intestine is part of the body’s digestive system, which also includes the esophagus, stomach, and large intestine. The digestive system removes and processes nutrients (vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water) from foods and helps pass waste material out of the body. The small intestine is a long tube that connects the stomach to the large intestine. It folds many times to fit inside the abdomen.
Anatomy of the lower digestive system, showing the colon and other organs. | View a Larger Version
There are five types of small intestine cancer.
The types of cancer found in the small intestine are adenocarcinoma, sarcoma, carcinoid tumors, gastrointestinal stromal tumor, and lymphoma. This summary discusses adenocarcinoma and leiomyosarcoma (a type of sarcoma).
Adenocarcinoma starts in glandular cells in the lining of the small intestine and is the most common type of small intestine cancer. Most of these tumors occur in the part of the small intestine near the stomach. They may grow and block the intestine.
Leiomyosarcoma starts in the smooth muscle cells of the small intestine. Most of these tumors occur in the part of the small intestine near the large intestine.
Refer to the following PDQ summaries for more information on small intestine cancer:
Adult Soft Tissue Sarcoma Treatment
Childhood Soft Tissue Sarcoma Treatment
Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment
Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment
Gastrointestinal Carcinoid Tumor Treatment
General Information About Small Intestine Cancer
Small intestine cancer is a rare disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the small intestine.
The small intestine is part of the body’s digestive system, which also includes the esophagus, stomach, and large intestine. The digestive system removes and processes nutrients (vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water) from foods and helps pass waste material out of the body. The small intestine is a long tube that connects the stomach to the large intestine. It folds many times to fit inside the abdomen.
Anatomy of the lower digestive system, showing the colon and other organs. | View a Larger Version
There are five types of small intestine cancer.
The types of cancer found in the small intestine are adenocarcinoma, sarcoma, carcinoid tumors, gastrointestinal stromal tumor, and lymphoma. This summary discusses adenocarcinoma and leiomyosarcoma (a type of sarcoma).
Adenocarcinoma starts in glandular cells in the lining of the small intestine and is the most common type of small intestine cancer. Most of these tumors occur in the part of the small intestine near the stomach. They may grow and block the intestine.
Leiomyosarcoma starts in the smooth muscle cells of the small intestine. Most of these tumors occur in the part of the small intestine near the large intestine.
Refer to the following PDQ summaries for more information on small intestine cancer:
Adult Soft Tissue Sarcoma Treatment
Childhood Soft Tissue Sarcoma Treatment
Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment
Childhood Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment
Gastrointestinal Carcinoid Tumor Treatment
Adult Soft Tissue Sarcoma
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of adult soft tissue sarcoma.Adult Soft Tissue Sarcoma (PDQ®): TreatmentAdult Soft Tissue Sarcoma Treatment
General Information About Adult Soft Tissue Sarcoma
Adult soft tissue sarcoma is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the soft tissues of the body.
The soft tissues of the body include the muscles, tendons (bands of fiber that connect muscles to bones), fat, blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerves, and tissues around joints. Adult soft tissue sarcomas can form almost anywhere in the body, but are most common in the legs, abdomen, arms, and trunk.
There are many types of soft tissue sarcoma. One type that forms in the wall of the stomach, intestines, or rectum is called a gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST). The cells of each type of sarcoma look different under a microscope, based on the type of soft tissue in which the cancer began.
Having certain inherited disorders can increase the risk of developing adult soft tissue sarcoma.
Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Risk factors for soft tissue sarcoma include the following inherited disorders:
Retinoblastoma.
Neurofibromatosis type 1 (von Recklinghausen disease or NF1).
Tuberous sclerosis.
Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP).
Li-Fraumeni syndrome.
Werner syndrome.
Basal cell nevus syndrome.
Other risk factors for soft tissue sarcoma include past treatment with radiation therapy during childhood or for the following types of cancer:
Retinoblastoma.
Breast cancer.
Lymphoma.
Cervical cancer.
Possible signs of adult soft tissue sarcoma include a lump or swelling in soft tissue of the body.
A sarcoma may appear as a painless lump under the skin, often on an arm or a leg. Sarcomas that begin in the abdomen may not cause symptoms until they become very large. As the sarcoma grows larger and presses on nearby organs, nerves, muscles, or blood vessels, symptoms may include:
Pain.
Trouble breathing.
Other conditions may cause the same symptoms that soft tissue sarcomas do. A doctor should be consulted if any of these problems occur.
General Information About Adult Soft Tissue Sarcoma
Adult soft tissue sarcoma is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the soft tissues of the body.
The soft tissues of the body include the muscles, tendons (bands of fiber that connect muscles to bones), fat, blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerves, and tissues around joints. Adult soft tissue sarcomas can form almost anywhere in the body, but are most common in the legs, abdomen, arms, and trunk.
There are many types of soft tissue sarcoma. One type that forms in the wall of the stomach, intestines, or rectum is called a gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST). The cells of each type of sarcoma look different under a microscope, based on the type of soft tissue in which the cancer began.
Having certain inherited disorders can increase the risk of developing adult soft tissue sarcoma.
Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Risk factors for soft tissue sarcoma include the following inherited disorders:
Retinoblastoma.
Neurofibromatosis type 1 (von Recklinghausen disease or NF1).
Tuberous sclerosis.
Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP).
Li-Fraumeni syndrome.
Werner syndrome.
Basal cell nevus syndrome.
Other risk factors for soft tissue sarcoma include past treatment with radiation therapy during childhood or for the following types of cancer:
Retinoblastoma.
Breast cancer.
Lymphoma.
Cervical cancer.
Possible signs of adult soft tissue sarcoma include a lump or swelling in soft tissue of the body.
A sarcoma may appear as a painless lump under the skin, often on an arm or a leg. Sarcomas that begin in the abdomen may not cause symptoms until they become very large. As the sarcoma grows larger and presses on nearby organs, nerves, muscles, or blood vessels, symptoms may include:
Pain.
Trouble breathing.
Other conditions may cause the same symptoms that soft tissue sarcomas do. A doctor should be consulted if any of these problems occur.
Friday, August 29, 2008
Childhood Soft Tissue Sarcoma
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of childhood soft tissue sarcomas.Childhood Soft Tissue Sarcoma (PDQ®): TreatmentChildhood Soft Tissue Sarcoma Treatment
General Information About Childhood Soft Tissue Sarcoma
Childhood soft tissue sarcoma is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in soft tissues of the body.
Soft tissues of the body connect, support, and surround other body parts and organs. The soft tissues include the following:
Muscles.
Tendons (bands of tissue that connect muscles to bones).
Synovial tissues (tissues around joints).
Fat.
Blood vessels.
Lymph vessels.
Nerves.
Soft tissue sarcoma may be found anywhere in the body. In children, the tumors form most often in the arms, legs, or trunk (chest and abdomen).
There are many different types of soft tissue sarcomas.
The cells of each type of sarcoma look different under a microscope. The soft tissue tumors are grouped based on the type of soft tissue cell where they first formed.
Rhabdomyosarcoma is the most common type of childhood soft tissue sarcoma. It begins in muscles that surround bone. Rhabdomyosarcoma is not discussed in this summary. (See the PDQ summary on Childhood Rhabdomyosarcoma Treatment for more information.) This summary is about the other types of soft tissue sarcoma:
General Information About Childhood Soft Tissue Sarcoma
Childhood soft tissue sarcoma is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in soft tissues of the body.
Soft tissues of the body connect, support, and surround other body parts and organs. The soft tissues include the following:
Muscles.
Tendons (bands of tissue that connect muscles to bones).
Synovial tissues (tissues around joints).
Fat.
Blood vessels.
Lymph vessels.
Nerves.
Soft tissue sarcoma may be found anywhere in the body. In children, the tumors form most often in the arms, legs, or trunk (chest and abdomen).
There are many different types of soft tissue sarcomas.
The cells of each type of sarcoma look different under a microscope. The soft tissue tumors are grouped based on the type of soft tissue cell where they first formed.
Rhabdomyosarcoma is the most common type of childhood soft tissue sarcoma. It begins in muscles that surround bone. Rhabdomyosarcoma is not discussed in this summary. (See the PDQ summary on Childhood Rhabdomyosarcoma Treatment for more information.) This summary is about the other types of soft tissue sarcoma:
Gastric Cancer
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of gastric cancer.Gastric Cancer (PDQ®): TreatmentGastric Cancer Treatment
General Information About Gastric Cancer
Gastric cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the lining of the stomach.
The stomach is a J-shaped organ in the upper abdomen. It is part of the digestive system, which processes nutrients (vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water) in foods that are eaten and helps pass waste material out of the body. Food moves from the throat to the stomach through a hollow, muscular tube called the esophagus. After leaving the stomach, partly-digested food passes into the small intestine and then into the large intestine.
The stomach and esophagus are part of the upper digestive system. | View a Larger Version
The wall of the stomach is made up of 3 layers of tissue: the mucosal (innermost) layer, the muscularis (middle) layer, and the serosal (outermost) layer. Gastric cancer begins in the cells lining the mucosal layer and spreads through the outer layers as it grows.
Stromal tumors of the stomach begin in supporting connective tissue and are treated differently from gastric cancer. See the PDQ summary on Adult Soft Tissue Sarcoma Treatment for more information.
Age, diet, and stomach disease can affect the risk of developing gastric cancer.
Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Risk factors include the following:
Helicobacter pylori infection of the stomach.
Chronic gastritis (inflammation of the stomach).
Older age.
Being male.
A diet high in salted, smoked, or poorly preserved foods and low in fruits and vegetables.
Pernicious anemia.
Smoking cigarettes.
Intestinal metaplasia.
Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) or gastric polyps.
A mother, father, sister, or brother who has had stomach cancer.
General Information About Gastric Cancer
Gastric cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the lining of the stomach.
The stomach is a J-shaped organ in the upper abdomen. It is part of the digestive system, which processes nutrients (vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water) in foods that are eaten and helps pass waste material out of the body. Food moves from the throat to the stomach through a hollow, muscular tube called the esophagus. After leaving the stomach, partly-digested food passes into the small intestine and then into the large intestine.
The stomach and esophagus are part of the upper digestive system. | View a Larger Version
The wall of the stomach is made up of 3 layers of tissue: the mucosal (innermost) layer, the muscularis (middle) layer, and the serosal (outermost) layer. Gastric cancer begins in the cells lining the mucosal layer and spreads through the outer layers as it grows.
Stromal tumors of the stomach begin in supporting connective tissue and are treated differently from gastric cancer. See the PDQ summary on Adult Soft Tissue Sarcoma Treatment for more information.
Age, diet, and stomach disease can affect the risk of developing gastric cancer.
Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Risk factors include the following:
Helicobacter pylori infection of the stomach.
Chronic gastritis (inflammation of the stomach).
Older age.
Being male.
A diet high in salted, smoked, or poorly preserved foods and low in fruits and vegetables.
Pernicious anemia.
Smoking cigarettes.
Intestinal metaplasia.
Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) or gastric polyps.
A mother, father, sister, or brother who has had stomach cancer.
Malignant Testicular Germ Cell Tumor
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of testicular cancer.Testicular Cancer (PDQ®): TreatmentTesticular Cancer Treatment
General Information About Testicular Cancer
Testicular cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of one or both testicles.
The testicles are 2 egg-shaped glands located inside the scrotum (a sac of loose skin that lies directly below the penis). The testicles are held within the scrotum by the spermatic cord, which also contains the vas deferens and vessels and nerves of the testicles.
Anatomy of the male reproductive and urinary systems, showing the testicles, prostate, bladder, and other organs. | View a Larger Version
The testicles are the male sex glands and produce testosterone and sperm. Germ cells within the testicles produce immature sperm that travel through a network of tubules (tiny tubes) and larger tubes into the epididymis (a long coiled tube next to the testicles) where the sperm mature and are stored.
Almost all testicular cancers start in the germ cells. The two main types of testicular germ cell tumors are seminomas and nonseminomas. These 2 types grow and spread differently and are treated differently. Nonseminomas tend to grow and spread more quickly than seminomas. Seminomas are more sensitive to radiation. A testicular tumor that contains both seminoma and nonseminoma cells is treated as a nonseminoma.
Testicular cancer is the most common cancer in men 20 to 35 years old.
General Information About Testicular Cancer
Testicular cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of one or both testicles.
The testicles are 2 egg-shaped glands located inside the scrotum (a sac of loose skin that lies directly below the penis). The testicles are held within the scrotum by the spermatic cord, which also contains the vas deferens and vessels and nerves of the testicles.
Anatomy of the male reproductive and urinary systems, showing the testicles, prostate, bladder, and other organs. | View a Larger Version
The testicles are the male sex glands and produce testosterone and sperm. Germ cells within the testicles produce immature sperm that travel through a network of tubules (tiny tubes) and larger tubes into the epididymis (a long coiled tube next to the testicles) where the sperm mature and are stored.
Almost all testicular cancers start in the germ cells. The two main types of testicular germ cell tumors are seminomas and nonseminomas. These 2 types grow and spread differently and are treated differently. Nonseminomas tend to grow and spread more quickly than seminomas. Seminomas are more sensitive to radiation. A testicular tumor that contains both seminoma and nonseminoma cells is treated as a nonseminoma.
Testicular cancer is the most common cancer in men 20 to 35 years old.
Thymoma / Thymic Carcinoma
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of thymoma and thymic carcinoma.Thymoma and Thymic Carcinoma (PDQ®): TreatmentThymoma and Thymic Carcinoma Treatment
General Information About Thymoma and Thymic Carcinoma
Thymoma and thymic carcinoma are diseases in which malignant (cancer) cells form on the outside surface of the thymus.
The thymus, a small organ that lies in the upper chest under the breastbone, is part of the lymph system. It makes white blood cells, called lymphocytes, that protect the body against infections.
There are different types of tumors of the thymus. Thymomas and thymic carcinomas are rare tumors of the cells that are on the outside surface of the thymus. The tumor cells in a thymoma look similar to the normal cells of the thymus, grow slowly, and rarely spread beyond the thymus. On the other hand, the tumor cells in a thymic carcinoma look very different from the normal cells of the thymus, grow more quickly, and have usually spread to other parts of the body when the cancer is found. Thymic carcinoma is more difficult to treat than thymoma.
Having a disease called myasthenia gravis can affect the risk of developing thymoma.
People with thymoma often have other diseases as well. These diseases may include myasthenia gravis, polymyositis, lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, thyroiditis, Sjogren syndrome, and hypogammaglobulinemia.
General Information About Thymoma and Thymic Carcinoma
Thymoma and thymic carcinoma are diseases in which malignant (cancer) cells form on the outside surface of the thymus.
The thymus, a small organ that lies in the upper chest under the breastbone, is part of the lymph system. It makes white blood cells, called lymphocytes, that protect the body against infections.
There are different types of tumors of the thymus. Thymomas and thymic carcinomas are rare tumors of the cells that are on the outside surface of the thymus. The tumor cells in a thymoma look similar to the normal cells of the thymus, grow slowly, and rarely spread beyond the thymus. On the other hand, the tumor cells in a thymic carcinoma look very different from the normal cells of the thymus, grow more quickly, and have usually spread to other parts of the body when the cancer is found. Thymic carcinoma is more difficult to treat than thymoma.
Having a disease called myasthenia gravis can affect the risk of developing thymoma.
People with thymoma often have other diseases as well. These diseases may include myasthenia gravis, polymyositis, lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, thyroiditis, Sjogren syndrome, and hypogammaglobulinemia.
Thyroid Cancer
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of thyroid cancer.Thyroid Cancer (PDQ®): TreatmentThyroid Cancer Treatment
Description
What is thyroid cancer?
Thyroid cancer is a disease in which cancer (malignant) cells are found in the tissues of the thyroid gland. The thyroid gland is at the base of the throat. It has two lobes, one on the right side and one on the left. The thyroid gland makes important hormones that help the body function normally.
Certain factors may increase the risk of developing thyroid cancer.
Thyroid cancer occurs more often in people between the ages of 25 and 65 years.
People who have been exposed to radiation or received radiation treatments to the head and neck during infancy or childhood have a greater chance of developing thyroid cancer. The cancer may occur as early as 5 years after exposure or may occur 20 or more years later.
People who have had goiter (enlarged thyroid) or a family history of thyroid disease have an increased risk of developing thyroid cancer.
Thyroid cancer is more common in women than in men.
Asian people have an increased risk of developing thyroid cancer.
Description
What is thyroid cancer?
Thyroid cancer is a disease in which cancer (malignant) cells are found in the tissues of the thyroid gland. The thyroid gland is at the base of the throat. It has two lobes, one on the right side and one on the left. The thyroid gland makes important hormones that help the body function normally.
Certain factors may increase the risk of developing thyroid cancer.
Thyroid cancer occurs more often in people between the ages of 25 and 65 years.
People who have been exposed to radiation or received radiation treatments to the head and neck during infancy or childhood have a greater chance of developing thyroid cancer. The cancer may occur as early as 5 years after exposure or may occur 20 or more years later.
People who have had goiter (enlarged thyroid) or a family history of thyroid disease have an increased risk of developing thyroid cancer.
Thyroid cancer is more common in women than in men.
Asian people have an increased risk of developing thyroid cancer.
Urethral Cancer
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of urethral cancer.Urethral Cancer (PDQ®): TreatmentUrethral Cancer Treatment
General Information About Urethral Cancer
Urethral cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the urethra.
The urethra is the tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside the body. In women, the urethra is about 1½ inches long and is just above the vagina. In men, the urethra is about 8 inches long, and goes through the prostate gland and the penis to the outside of the body. In men, the urethra also carries semen.
Urethral cancer is a rare cancer that occurs more often in women than in men. There are different types of urethral cancer that begin in cells that line the urethra. These cancers are named for the types of cells that become malignant (cancerous):
Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common type of urethral cancer. It forms in cells in the part of the urethra near the bladder in women, and in the lining of the urethra in the penis in men.
Transitional cell carcinoma forms in the area near the urethral opening in women, and in the part of the urethra that goes through the prostate gland in men.
Adenocarcinoma forms in glands near the urethra in both men and women.
Urethral cancer can metastasize (spread) quickly to tissues around the urethra and is often found in nearby lymph nodes by the time it is diagnosed.
General Information About Urethral Cancer
Urethral cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the urethra.
The urethra is the tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside the body. In women, the urethra is about 1½ inches long and is just above the vagina. In men, the urethra is about 8 inches long, and goes through the prostate gland and the penis to the outside of the body. In men, the urethra also carries semen.
Urethral cancer is a rare cancer that occurs more often in women than in men. There are different types of urethral cancer that begin in cells that line the urethra. These cancers are named for the types of cells that become malignant (cancerous):
Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common type of urethral cancer. It forms in cells in the part of the urethra near the bladder in women, and in the lining of the urethra in the penis in men.
Transitional cell carcinoma forms in the area near the urethral opening in women, and in the part of the urethra that goes through the prostate gland in men.
Adenocarcinoma forms in glands near the urethra in both men and women.
Urethral cancer can metastasize (spread) quickly to tissues around the urethra and is often found in nearby lymph nodes by the time it is diagnosed.
Uterine Sarcoma
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of uterine sarcomas.Uterine Sarcoma (PDQ®): TreatmentUterine Sarcoma Treatment
General Information About Uterine Sarcoma
Uterine sarcoma is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the muscles of the uterus or other tissues that support the uterus.
The uterus is part of the female reproductive system. The uterus is the hollow, pear-shaped organ in the pelvis, where a fetus grows. The cervix is at the lower, narrow end of the uterus, and leads to the vagina.
Uterine sarcoma is a very rare kind of cancer that forms in the uterine muscles or in tissues that support the uterus. (Information about other types of sarcomas can be found in the PDQ summary on Adult Soft Tissue Sarcoma Treatment.) Uterine sarcoma is different from cancer of the endometrium, a disease in which cancer cells start growing inside the lining of the uterus. (See the PDQ summary on Endometrial Cancer Treatment for information).
Being exposed to x-rays can increase the risk of developing uterine sarcoma.
Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer; not having risk factors doesn’t mean that you will not get cancer. People who think they may be at risk should discuss this with their doctor. Risk factors for uterine sarcoma include the following:
General Information About Uterine Sarcoma
Uterine sarcoma is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the muscles of the uterus or other tissues that support the uterus.
The uterus is part of the female reproductive system. The uterus is the hollow, pear-shaped organ in the pelvis, where a fetus grows. The cervix is at the lower, narrow end of the uterus, and leads to the vagina.
Uterine sarcoma is a very rare kind of cancer that forms in the uterine muscles or in tissues that support the uterus. (Information about other types of sarcomas can be found in the PDQ summary on Adult Soft Tissue Sarcoma Treatment.) Uterine sarcoma is different from cancer of the endometrium, a disease in which cancer cells start growing inside the lining of the uterus. (See the PDQ summary on Endometrial Cancer Treatment for information).
Being exposed to x-rays can increase the risk of developing uterine sarcoma.
Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer; not having risk factors doesn’t mean that you will not get cancer. People who think they may be at risk should discuss this with their doctor. Risk factors for uterine sarcoma include the following:
Unusual Cancers Of Childhood
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of unusual cancers of childhood.Unusual Cancers of Childhood (PDQ®): TreatmentUnusual Cancers of Childhood Treatment
General Information
The tumors discussed in this summary are many and different, and the discussion is arranged in descending order from tumors of the head and neck to tumors of the urinary system and skin. All of these cancers are rare enough that most pediatric hospitals might see fewer than two cases in a year. Most of these tumors are more frequent in adults with cancer; thus, much of the information about these tumors may also be sought through sources relevant to adults with these tumors.
Head and Neck Cancers
Head and neck cancers include cancers of the nose and throat, thyroid tumors, mouth cancer, salivary gland cancer, cancer of the larynx (or voice box), and respiratory tract. These cancers are discussed below.
Cancer of the Nose and Throat
Cancers that start in the lining of the nasal cavity and throat are called nasopharyngeal cancers. The incidence of this tumor is approximately 1 in 100,000 persons younger than 20 years in the United States.
General Information
The tumors discussed in this summary are many and different, and the discussion is arranged in descending order from tumors of the head and neck to tumors of the urinary system and skin. All of these cancers are rare enough that most pediatric hospitals might see fewer than two cases in a year. Most of these tumors are more frequent in adults with cancer; thus, much of the information about these tumors may also be sought through sources relevant to adults with these tumors.
Head and Neck Cancers
Head and neck cancers include cancers of the nose and throat, thyroid tumors, mouth cancer, salivary gland cancer, cancer of the larynx (or voice box), and respiratory tract. These cancers are discussed below.
Cancer of the Nose and Throat
Cancers that start in the lining of the nasal cavity and throat are called nasopharyngeal cancers. The incidence of this tumor is approximately 1 in 100,000 persons younger than 20 years in the United States.
Vaginal Cancer
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of vaginal cancer.Vaginal Cancer (PDQ®): TreatmentVaginal Cancer Treatment
General Information About Vaginal Cancer
Vaginal cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the vagina.
The vagina is the canal leading from the cervix (the opening of uterus) to the outside of the body. At birth, a baby passes out of the body through the vagina (also called the birth canal).
Vaginal cancer is not common. When found in early stages, it can often be cured. There are two main types of vaginal cancer:
Squamous cell carcinoma: Cancer that forms in squamous cells, the thin, flat cells lining the vagina. Squamous cell vaginal cancer spreads slowly and usually stays near the vagina, but may spread to the lungs and liver. This is the most common type of vaginal cancer. It is found most often in women aged 60 or older.
Adenocarcinoma: Cancer that begins in glandular (secretory) cells. Glandular cells in the lining of the vagina make and release fluids such as mucus. Adenocarcinoma is more likely than squamous cell cancer to spread to the lungs and lymph nodes. It is found most often in women aged 30 or younger.
Age and exposure to the drug DES (diethylstilbestrol) before birth affect a woman’s risk of developing vaginal cancer.
General Information About Vaginal Cancer
Vaginal cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the vagina.
The vagina is the canal leading from the cervix (the opening of uterus) to the outside of the body. At birth, a baby passes out of the body through the vagina (also called the birth canal).
Vaginal cancer is not common. When found in early stages, it can often be cured. There are two main types of vaginal cancer:
Squamous cell carcinoma: Cancer that forms in squamous cells, the thin, flat cells lining the vagina. Squamous cell vaginal cancer spreads slowly and usually stays near the vagina, but may spread to the lungs and liver. This is the most common type of vaginal cancer. It is found most often in women aged 60 or older.
Adenocarcinoma: Cancer that begins in glandular (secretory) cells. Glandular cells in the lining of the vagina make and release fluids such as mucus. Adenocarcinoma is more likely than squamous cell cancer to spread to the lungs and lymph nodes. It is found most often in women aged 30 or younger.
Age and exposure to the drug DES (diethylstilbestrol) before birth affect a woman’s risk of developing vaginal cancer.
Vulvar Cancer
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of vulvar cancer.Vulvar Cancer (PDQ®): TreatmentVulvar Cancer Treatment
General Information About Vulvar Cancer
Vulvar cancer is a rare disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the vulva.
Vulvar cancer forms in a woman's external genitalia. The vulva includes the inner and outer lips of the vagina, the clitoris (sensitive tissue between the lips), and the opening of the vagina and its glands.
Vulvar cancer most often affects the outer vaginal lips. Less often, cancer affects the inner vaginal lips or the clitoris.
Vulvar cancer usually develops slowly over a period of years. Abnormal cells can grow on the surface of the vulvar skin for a long time. This precancerous condition is called vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN) or dysplasia. Because it is possible for VIN or dysplasia to develop into vulvar cancer, treatment of this condition is very important.
HPV infection and older age can affect the risk of developing vulvar cancer.
Risk factors include the following:
Having human papillomavirus (HPV) infection.
Older age.
General Information About Vulvar Cancer
Vulvar cancer is a rare disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the vulva.
Vulvar cancer forms in a woman's external genitalia. The vulva includes the inner and outer lips of the vagina, the clitoris (sensitive tissue between the lips), and the opening of the vagina and its glands.
Vulvar cancer most often affects the outer vaginal lips. Less often, cancer affects the inner vaginal lips or the clitoris.
Vulvar cancer usually develops slowly over a period of years. Abnormal cells can grow on the surface of the vulvar skin for a long time. This precancerous condition is called vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN) or dysplasia. Because it is possible for VIN or dysplasia to develop into vulvar cancer, treatment of this condition is very important.
HPV infection and older age can affect the risk of developing vulvar cancer.
Risk factors include the following:
Having human papillomavirus (HPV) infection.
Older age.
Wilms Tumor / Kidney Tumors
Expert-reviewed information summary about the treatment of Wilms tumor.Wilms Tumor and Other Childhood Kidney Tumors (PDQ®): TreatmentWilms Tumor and Other Childhood Kidney Tumors Treatment
General Information About Wilms Tumor and Other Childhood Kidney Tumors
Wilms tumor and other childhood kidney tumors are diseases in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the kidney.
Wilms tumor
Wilms tumor and other kidney tumors are diseases in which malignant (cancer) cells are found in the kidney. In Wilms tumor, one or more tumors may be found in one or both kidneys. There are two kidneys, one on each side of the backbone, above the waist. Tiny tubules in the kidneys filter and clean the blood, taking out waste products and making urine. The urine passes from each kidney through a long tube called a ureter into the bladder. The bladder holds the urine until it is passed from the body.
Wilms tumor may spread to the lungs, liver, or nearby lymph nodes.
Diffuse hyperplastic perilobar nephroblastomatosis (DHPLN) is a condition in which abnormal tissue grows on the outer part of one or both kidneys. Children with DHPLN are at risk for developing a type of Wilms tumor that grows quickly. Frequent follow-up testing is important for at least 7 years after the child is diagnosed with DHPLN.
General Information About Wilms Tumor and Other Childhood Kidney Tumors
Wilms tumor and other childhood kidney tumors are diseases in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the kidney.
Wilms tumor
Wilms tumor and other kidney tumors are diseases in which malignant (cancer) cells are found in the kidney. In Wilms tumor, one or more tumors may be found in one or both kidneys. There are two kidneys, one on each side of the backbone, above the waist. Tiny tubules in the kidneys filter and clean the blood, taking out waste products and making urine. The urine passes from each kidney through a long tube called a ureter into the bladder. The bladder holds the urine until it is passed from the body.
Wilms tumor may spread to the lungs, liver, or nearby lymph nodes.
Diffuse hyperplastic perilobar nephroblastomatosis (DHPLN) is a condition in which abnormal tissue grows on the outer part of one or both kidneys. Children with DHPLN are at risk for developing a type of Wilms tumor that grows quickly. Frequent follow-up testing is important for at least 7 years after the child is diagnosed with DHPLN.
Ebola
Some of you at the beginning of this page might have thought of the Ebola virus as the scariest, deadliest microbe you’ve ever heard of. Those of you who did so have probably seen the movie Outbreak or read The Hot Zone, which spotlighted this grisly virus. Ebola is definitely a nasty killer. It is part of a group of viruses that, among other effects on the body, cause the blood to stop clotting. Victims begin oozing blood from their mouths, noses, internal organs, even their eyes. It kills up to almost 90% of those who get infected.With that kind of death rate, Ebola would be the deadliest microbe of all if it was more common. Fortunately, infections by this virus are pretty rare. There have only been seven outbreaks in humans. It has killed just over 800 people since the first outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly called Zaire) in 1976.
While outbreaks of this virus are rare and relatively small, Ebola is still one mean microbe that I wouldn’t ever want to tangle with. If you want to meet someone who has tackled Ebola, visit the interview with Dr. Ali Kahn in the Careers section.
The Plague
The 1918 flu virus and HIV are the biggest killers of modern times. But back in the 14th century, the bacterium that causes bubonic plague, or the Black Death as it was also known, was the baddest bug of all.In just a few years, from 1347 to 1351, the plague killed off about 75,000,000 people worldwide, including one-third of the entire population of Europe at that time. It spread through Asia, Italy, North Africa, Spain, Normandy, Switzerland, and eastward into Hungary. After a brief break, it crossed into England, Scotland, and then to Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Iceland and Greenland.
The plague bacterium is called Yersinia Yersinia pestis is the deadliest microbe we’ve ever known, although HIV might catch up to it. Yersinia pestis is still around in the world. Fortunately, with bacteria-killing antibiotics and measures to control the pests—rats and mice—that spread the bacteria, we’ve managed to conquer this killer.
The Flu Virus
Oh come on now, I’m sure you’re saying. The flu virus here in a list of the most lethal microbes?Sure, every year during what’s called "the flu season" tens of thousands of people get the flu. Despite feeling all achy and lousy for several days, most people eventually beat the virus and recover just fine.
But that’s not how it went during the 1918 flu season. That year, World War I was raging so the effects of the flu virus sort of got overshadowed by the bigger, more obvious effects of bullets and bombs.
However, in 1918 the flu virus killed at least 675,000 American people. Worldwide, it killed at least 21,000,000 people. These are low estimates. Some research now suggests that the flu may have killed 40,000,000 to 50,000,000 people around the world that year.
Researchers still aren’t sure why the 1918 flu virus was so deadly. Victims of the flu that year died in a gruesome way, the virus causing so much fluid to build up in their lungs so rapidly that it was like drowning.
If higher estimates of how many people died from the 1918 flu are true, then the 1918 flu is the deadliest microbe ever in a single year. Thank goodness we haven’t seen a flu bug that deadly again—but will we someday?
HIV/AIDS
The Human Immunodeficiency Virus or HIV causes the disease we know as AIDS. AIDS is a pandemic—a disease outbreak that is happening all over the world. In 2000 alone, 3,000,000 people died of AIDS. Since the AIDS pandemic began around 1985, almost 22,000,000 people have died from the disease. Right now, HIV infects more than 36,000,000 people across the world, so that death toll will definitely get a lot bigger over the next several years.HIV doesn’t kill people itself. Instead, the virus shuts down a person’s immune defenses—the tools used to fight off invading germs—by infecting and destroying important immune cells called T cells. Once a person loses too many T cells, his or her body can no longer deal with other microbes that cause infections. HIV merely opens the floodgates. Eventually HIV-infected people become overrun by germs and die of lung infections, skin infections or other diseases.
We now have several drugs that fight HIV. They cannot cure the infection, but they can keep it in check. Unfortunately, victims of HIV have to take several of these drugs every day for life and the drugs are very expensive. In Africa and other developing parts of the world where HIV is spreading most rapidly, most people don’t have enough money to buy these drugs. That’s why we can expect the death toll from HIV/AIDS to get a lot bigger over the next several years.
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